(3) The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion results when the argument does not squarely meet the point at issue. It is the fallacy of arguing to the wrong point either purposely or ignorantly. This may be accomplished by (1) appealing to sympathy of audience, (2) defaming character of opponent, (3) assuming that the fact is true because of inability to prove the contradictory, (4) gaining point by force, (5) citing authority. (4) “_Non sequitur_” is the fallacy of deriving a conclusion which does not follow from the premises. It involves introducing new material in the conclusion. (5) “False cause” is the fallacy of assuming that because two happenings have occurred together several times the one is the cause of the other. The fallacy is due largely to the exaggerations of fear and superstition. (6) The fallacy of complex question consists in putting an assumption in the form of a question. (7) Begging the question is the fallacy of deriving a conclusion from notions which in themselves demand proof. This fallacy takes the three forms of (1) the assumption of an unproved premise, (2) reasoning in a circle, (3) question begging epithets and appellations. =10. ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN THE TESTING OF ARGUMENTS IN BOTH FORM AND MEANING.= (1a) He who wilfully takes the life of another should be electrocuted, This sharp shooter has wilfully taken the life of another, Hence he should be electrocuted. { A In form we know this argument to be valid since it is in mood { A of { A the first figure. But as the conclusion does not meet with our approval, we are forced to the belief that there must be a material fallacy. Such proves to be the case. In the first instance, “Wilfully takes the life of another” is used in a personal, individual, selfish sense, whereas in the second instance the expression is used in a general, “servant-of-the-government” signification. The argument is, therefore, invalid, the fallacy being ambiguous middle. (1b) From the viewpoint of both _form_ and _meaning_ test the following: “Events which are not probable happen almost every day; but what happens every day are very probable events; therefore events which are not probable are very probable.” (2a) The planets have those attributes needed in the support of life, Mars is a planet, Hence Mars has those attributes needed in the support of life. { A This is valid in form { A in the first figure. The major premise posits { A a fact which has not been proved; the argument is therefore invalid in meaning, the fallacy being that of _begging the question_.