31. Which of the following aims should the teaching of history in the high school emphasize, viz., (_a_) giving to youths the knowledge and power for the right interpretation of the civilizations of the past, (_b_) assisting youths to an understanding of the development and significance of present-day civilizations and aiding them to adjust themselves to these civilizations; (_c_) giving a perspective from which to pre-view, in part, the trend of the future and to plan one's career accordingly? 32. From your observations do the teachers stress the events, or the motives, the ideals, and the ideas that gave rise to the events? What would be your aim here? 33. Of what does thinking consist? 34. Are pupils in the classes observed expected to think for themselves? Are they encouraged to express their personal reactions to the facts presented? 35. What guiding principle should a high school teacher or textbook writer set for himself in selecting from the infinite mass of data recorded the material to be used in the high school, (_a_) that which reveals the development of personal liberty--political, religious, economic; (_b_) that which reveals the development of democratic institutions; (_c_) that which reveals the growth of altruism or the humanitarian spirit; (_d_) that which reveals the development of commerce, industry, and finance; (_e_) that which reveals the development of thought and the institutions that aim to develop and train it; or (_f_) that which reveals the development of social relations and activities? VIII. _Elements of History._ 1. Time Element: The when, or chronology. (_a_) Units of measurement: day, month, year, decade, century, administration, sovereignty, ministry, epoch, era, and the unit determined by the movement of the events themselves as they naturally cohere. (_b_) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position in time. 2. Place Element: The where, or geography. (_a_) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, kingdom, state, section, region, district, town, city, county, and the geographical groups or centers formed by the events themselves as they cohere. 3. Physical Element: (_a_) Climate and meteorology affecting (1) Character of the people. (2) Occupations. (_b_) Topography, affecting (1) Movement of races, armies, productions, etc. (2) Size and boundaries of states. (3) Location and character of cities. (4) Industries. (5) Trade and transportation. (_c_) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting (1) Livelihood. (2) Character of people. (_d_) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, earthquakes, storms, eclipses, comets, volcanic eruptions, etc., affecting (1) Beliefs and actions of people. 4. Human Element. (_a_) The national or race spirit. (_b_) The religious emotions and aspirations. (_c_) The sentimental interests.