§ 332. The verb _quoth_ is truly defective. It is found in only one tense, one number, and one person. It is the third person singular of the præterite tense. It has the further peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying _he quoth_, we say _quoth he_. In Anglo-Saxon, however, it was not defective. It was found in the other tenses, in the other number, and in other moods. _Ic cweðe_, _þú cwyst_, _he cwyð_; _ic cwæð_, _þú cwæðe_, _he cwæð_, _we cwædon_, _ge cwædon_, _hi cwædon_; imperative, _cweð_; participle, _gecweden_. In the Scandinavian it is current in all its forms. There, however, it means, not _to speak_ but to _sing_. As far as its conjugation goes, it is strong. As far as its class goes, it follows the form of _speak_, _spoke_. Like _speak_, its Anglo-Saxon form is in æ, as _cwæð_. Like one of the forms of _speak_, its English form is in o, as _quoth_, _spoke_. § 333. The principle that gives us the truest views of the structure of language is that which considers no word irregular unless it be affected by either an _ambiguous_ process, or by a _process of confusion_. The words affected by _extraordinary processes_ form a provisional class, which a future increase of our etymological knowledge may show to be regular. _Worse_ and _could_ are the fairest specimens of our irregulars. Yet even _could_ is only an irregularity in the written language. The printer makes it, and the printer can take it away. Hence the class, instead of filling pages, is exceedingly limited. * * * * * CHAPTER XXVII. THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 334. In _me-seems_, and _me-thinks_, the _me_ is dative rather than accusative, and = _mihi_ and μοι rather than _me_ and με. § 335. In _me-listeth_, the _me_ is accusative rather than dative, and = _me_ and με rather than _mihi_ and μοι. For the explanation of this difference see _Syntax_, Chapter XXI. * * * * * CHAPTER XXVIII. THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. § 336. The verb substantive is generally dealt with as an _irregular_ verb. This is inaccurate. The true notion is that the idea of _being_ or _existing_ is expressed by four different verbs, each of which is defective in some of its parts. The parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made up by the inflections of one of the others. There is, for example, no præterite of the verb _am_, and no present of the verb _was_. The absence, however, of the present form of _was_ is made up by the word _am_, and the absence of the præterite form of _am_ is made up by the word _was_. § 337. _Was_ is defective, except in the præterite tense, where it is found both in the indicative and conjunctive. _Indicative._ | _Conjunctive._ _Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ 1. Was Were. | 1. Were Were. 2. Wast Were. | 2. Wert Were. 3. Was Were. | 3. Were Were.