=202. Customs duties, on the frontier and inside the country.=—The same ruinous excesses marked the policy in customs duties. The government established rates which were for the time enormously high, or absolute prohibitions with the death penalty for infraction. Commerce would have ceased almost altogether if it had not been for the absolute need of foreign wares in Spain after the destruction of home manufactures. The wares were procured partly by smugglers through the corruption of the customs guards, partly by the connivance of the government, which allowed foreigners such favors in measurement and valuation that often not over a quarter of the nominal duty was paid. This allowed wares to enter, but it killed the remnants of active Spanish commerce with Europe, for the favors granted to foreigners were refused to natives. Other measures almost as monstrous were attempted, and failed only because the government lacked power to enforce them. Spanish shipping declined until it practically ceased to exist outside the protected colonial traffic. Finally, to complete this picture of the difficulties under which commerce labored in Spain, duties existed not only on the frontiers but in the interior of the country, hindering the free passage of goods and the development of resources. Spanish kings made attempts to abolish the internal customs frontiers, which failed through the opposition of interested persons and the royal need for money. It was not until 1717 that the internal duties were done away with, and even then the remedy was insufficient, and Andalusia kept its internal tariff barriers. =203. Examples of bad policy; the Mesta.=—An excellent example of the evils of the government’s economic policy is furnished by the history of the Mesta, an association of stock raisers largely devoted to the production of merino wool. The flocks grazed in summer on the highlands of Leon, and descended in winter to Estremadura. The Mesta got such privileges that it killed the agriculture within its reach. Where the sheep had once fed the land could never be alienated for another purpose; no one could bid against the Mesta for the lease of pastures; proprietors along the route of the sheep must sit passive and see the crops destroyed by them. Estremadura, once one of the richest provinces of Spain, became one of the poorest, and parts of it now are nearly desert. The policy of favoring one interest, by sacrificing to it other interests more important, was characteristic of the diseased political condition of Spain; and the wasting of national resources shown in the case of the Mesta was but one of many examples of neglect. The canals and aqueducts of the irrigation system, on which the Moors had lavished their care, were allowed to deteriorate and go out of use; and the forests were cut down to the permanent detriment of the soil and water supply.