=400. Crises before 1850.=—The tendency of the commercial organization to these interruptions in its regularity of operation, which was apparent in advanced countries before 1800, has grown more marked in the nineteenth century; and, with the spread of the modern organization, crises now affect the whole world. Crises have occurred at intervals of about eleven years since 1800. A crisis marked the end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815. Another followed in 1825, occasioned, in England, by speculation in banks, turnpikes, and canals, and by unwise investments in South America. Commerce recovered from its depression only to decline again after the crisis of 1836-39, which was felt with particular severity in the United States in 1837. The last of the crises in the first half of the century, and the first crisis for which railroad speculation can be held largely responsible, followed in 1847, and was the more severe on the Continent because it coincided with a period of political revolution. =401. Crises since 1850.=—Toward the middle of the century the new instruments of steam transportation began to work their great changes. At just this time, moreover, the discovery of gold in California (1848) and in Australia (1851) led to an immense increase in the world’s stock of gold, which is said to have doubled in little more than ten years. The results, inflation and speculation, were as marked as though the new money had been of paper, and a period of over-trading ceased only with the outbreak of the crisis of 1857, which spread quickly from the United States to England and thence to the Continent. A longer period than usual intervened, broken only by local disturbances (failure of a great English banking firm in 1866, “Black Friday” in the United States, 1869). The crisis of 1873 was, perhaps, on this account, more serious; it led to a depression of many years, affecting all branches of trade, and even distant countries like Australia and South America. Beginning, this time, on the Continent, where the outcome of the Franco-Prussian war and the payment of the great war indemnity had led to unprecedented speculation, it found a ready field in the United States, where there had been an active speculation in land and stocks, and proved to be the greatest international crisis which the world has known. As though the air had been cleared by this great storm, succeeding disturbances have been far more restricted in their action. A banking crisis in France in 1882 and a railroad crisis in the United States in 1884 were the chief events of the next period of danger; and in more recent times have followed the American currency crisis of 1893, and the German industrial crisis of 1901.