The sweeping assertion is too often made that the Greek people were hostile to trade, and therefore that their theorists were especially opposed to it. We have already seen how false this idea is for the Greeks themselves,[215] but it also needs a great deal of qualification in the case of their writers. Their hostility is directed especially against the more petty business of retail trade (καπηλική) rather than against the extensive operations of the merchant (ἔμπορος). But their opposition even to this is not entirely undiscriminating. We have seen that Plato clearly understands the necessity of exchange to the life of the state.[216] He admits that even retail trade is not necessarily evil.[217] The chief reason why it appears so is because it gives free opportunity for the vulgar greed of unlimited gain, which is innate in man.[218] If the noblest citizens, who are governed by rational interests, should become retailers and innkeepers, the business would soon be held in honor.[219] Plato, however, would limit exchange to its primary function as defined above.[220] Like Ruskin, he believes that, whenever it is pursued merely for private gain, it becomes a source of degeneration to individual and state. It is then akin to the fraudulent or counterfeit pursuits (κιβδήλοις).[221] The retailers in well-ordered states are generally the weakest men, who are unable to undertake other work.[222] The rulers in the _Republic_ must keep themselves entirely free from the trammels of trade, lest they become wolves instead of shepherds,[223] though Plato is grappling here with a very real problem that still faces us—how to prevent graft among public servants.[224] In the _Laws_, retail trade is entirely prohibited to citizens,[225] and permitted only to metics and strangers,[226] and, indeed, only to those whose corruption will be of least injury to the state.[227] These aliens are not to be permitted to gain overmuch wealth,[228] and they must depart from the state, after twenty years’ residence, with all their belongings.[229] Retail trade, even in their hands, must be strictly limited to the demands of the state,[230] and confined to the market-place for the sake of publicity.[231] All exchange must be honest, dealing with unadulterated products (ἀκίβδηλον).[232] There shall be no dickering over sales, but only one price shall be set upon goods each day. If this is not accepted, the goods must be removed from sale until the following day.[233] If possible, the executors of the laws should try to fix a just schedule of prices, to allow of moderate gain, and should see that this is observed by the retailers.[234] As a climax to all these precautions, Plato would have the rulers take pains to devise means whereby the retailers shall not degenerate into unbridled shamelessness and meanness of soul.[235] Under such limitations, he has faint hopes that retail trade may be freed of its stigma, so as to do least harm to