two: since law, religion, and learning unite in condemning magic, it is unsocial in every respect; and it is more or less untrue, unreal, and unscientific. [Sidenote: Five subdivisions of magic.] Hugh’s list of various forbidden and occult arts which are sub-divisions of magic is somewhat similar to that of Isidore, but he classifies and groups them logically under five main heads in a way which appears to be partly his own, and which was followed by other subsequent writers, such as Roger Bacon. His first three main heads all deal with arts of divination. _Mantike_ divides as usual into necromancy, geomancy, hydromancy, aerimancy, and pyromancy. Under _mathematica_ are listed _aruspicina_, or the observation of hours (_horae_) or of entrails (_hara_); augury, or observation of birds; and _horoscopia_, or the observation of nativities. The third main head, _sortilegia_, deals with divination by lots. The fourth main head, _maleficia_, with which magic has already been twice identified in the chapter, is now described by Hugh as “the performance of evil deeds by incantations to demons, or by ligatures or any other accursed kind of remedies with the co-operation and instruction of demons.”[20] Fifth and last come _praestigia_, in which “by phantastic illusions concerning the transformation of objects the human senses are deceived by demoniacal art.”[21] [Sidenote: _De bestiis et aliis rebus._] Among the doubtful and spurious works ascribed to Hugh is a bestiary in four books,[22] in which various birds and beasts are described, and spiritual and moral applications are made from them. At least this is the character of the first part of the treatise; towards the close it becomes simply a glossary of all sorts of natural objects. _Physiologus_ is often cited for the natural properties of birds and beasts, but as we have already dealt with the problem of the _Physiologus_ in an earlier chapter, and as we shall sufficiently deal with the properties and natures ascribed to animals in the middle ages in describing the treatment of them by various encyclopedists like Thomas of Cantimpré, Bartholomew of England, and Albertus Magnus, we are at present mainly interested in some other features of the treatise before us. It is often illustrated with illuminations of birds and animals in the manuscripts and was originally intended to be so, as the prologue on the hawk and dove by its monkish author to a noble convert, Raynerus, makes evident. “Wishing to satisfy the petitions of your desire, I decided to paint the dove whose ‘wings are covered with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold,’ and to edify minds by painting, in order that what the simple mind can scarcely grasp by the eye of the intellect, it might at least discern with the carnal eye, and vision perceive what hearing could scarcely comprehend. However, I wished not only to depict the dove graphically but to describe it in words and to explain the painting by writing, so that he whom the