Marriage also, like the family, is said to pass through several distinct phases of development. Thus, with respect to the number of persons joining in a household, Friedrichs distinguishes four "forms" of marriage which, with equal propriety, may be called forms of the family. These are group-marriage, polyandry, polygyny, and monogamy, the first three forms having several varieties.[155] But, as will hereafter appear,[156] it would be rash to infer that these forms necessarily arise in the order named. Again, with regard to the way in which it originates, marriage presents a number of successive stages. According to Kohler,[157] these are marriage by capture, marriage by purchase, religious marriage, and civil marriage. That wife-capture generally gives place to wife-purchase, and this in turn to marriage by gift, and then to the modern contract between the parents, or later between the parties themselves, is especially insisted upon. Hildebrand,[158] however, reverses this order. A measure of progress he finds in what he regards as the three great industrial stages of human culture: those of the chase, pastoral life, and agriculture. In the first stage, not communism, but a tendency toward monogamy prevails. There is little notion of private property; hence covetousness is not a motive of social action. Marriages are freely formed through presents given to the parents, or even without them by simple agreement of the parties. Later, with the rise of private property, marriage by purchase and marriage by capture come into existence; though capture is always exceptional and of comparatively little importance in the history of marriage. [155] FRIEDRICHS, "Familienstufen und Eheformen," _ZVR._, X, 256-58. [156] See below, chaps. iii, iv. [157] "Wie die Ehe aus der Ueberwältigung der Frau durch den Mann hervorging, und wie sie sich von da aus zum Frauenkaufe gestaltete; wie sie zur religiösen Heilanstalt wurde und wie sie von da aus zum geläuterten Rechtsinstitute umbildete, indem die religiöse Feier nicht mehr obligat blieb, ... lehrt uns das indische Recht klarer, als jedes andere."--"Indisches Ehe- und Familienrecht," _ZVR._, III, 342, 343. [158] HILDEBRAND, _Ueber das Problem einer algemeinen Entwicklungsgeschichte_, 14 ff., 17 ff.; _idem_, _Recht und Sitte auf den versch_. _Kulturstufen_, 9 ff.