Subdivisions abounded. There were the _juglares_ or singing-actors, the _remendadores_ or mimes, the _cazurros_ or mutes with duties undefined, resembling those of the intelligent "super." Gifted _juglares_ at whiles produced original work; a _trovador_ out of luck sank to delivering the lines of his happier rivals; and a stray _remendador_ struggled into success as a _juglar_. There were _juglares de boca_ (reciters) and _juglares de péñola_ (musicians). Even an official label may deceive; thus a "Gómez _trovador_" is denoted in the year 1197, but the likelihood is that he was a mere _juglar_. The normal rule was that the _juglar_ recited the _trovador's_ verses; but, as already said, an occasional _trovador_ (Alfonso Álvarez de Villasandino, at Seville, in the fifteenth century, is a case in point) would declaim his own ballad. In the _juglar's_ hands the original was cut or padded to suit the hearers' taste. He subordinated the verses to the music, and gave them maimed, or arabesqued with _estribillos_ (refrains), to fit a popular air. The monotonous repetition of epithet and clause, common to all early verse, is used to lessen the strain on the _juglar's_ memory. The commonest arrangement was that the _juglar de boca_ sang the _trovador's_ words, the _juglar de péñola_ accompanying on some simple instrument, while the _remendador_ gave the story in pantomime. All the world over the history of early literatures is identical. With the Greeks the minstrel attains at last an important post in the chieftain's train. Seated on a high chair inlaid with silver, he entertains the guests, or guards the wife of Agamemnon, his patron and his friend. Just so does Phemios sing amid the suitors of Penelope. It was not always thus. Bentley has told us in his pointed way that "poor Homer in those circumstances and early times had never such aspiring thoughts" as mankind and everlasting fame; and that "he wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies to be sung by himself for small earnings and good cheer, at festivals, and other days of merriment." This rise and fall occurred in Spain as elsewhere. For her early _trovadores_ or _juglares_, as for Demodokos in the _Odyssey_, and as for Fergus MacIvor's sennachie, a cup of wine sufficed. "_Dat nos del vino si non tenedes dinneros_," says the _juglar_ who sang the Cid's exploits: "Give us wine, if you have no money." Gonzalo de Berceo, the first Castilian writer whose name reaches us, is likewise the first Castilian to use the word _trovador_ in his _Loores de Nuestra Señora_ (The Praises of Our Lady): "_Aun merced te pido por el tu trobador._" (Thy favour I implore for this thy troubadour.)