=The Ludus.=--The ludus, or lowest school, may possibly have existed before the process of Hellenization even began, but if it did, it must have been intended simply to supplement the more informal training of the home. Whenever originated, it probably taught at first only reading, writing, and rudimentary calculation, as in the family, through the medium of historical anecdotes, ballads, religious songs, and the _Twelve Tables_. But as the Greek influence crept in more and more, the literary content was somewhat extended. About the middle of the third century B. C., Livius Andronicus translated the _Odyssey_ into Latin; and a number of epics, dramas, and epigrams were soon composed after Greek models. These works, in whole or part, were introduced into the curricula of the _ludi_ and by the beginning of the first century B. C., the _Twelve Tables_ had been displaced by the Latinized _Odyssey_ of Andronicus. The methods of instruction were _memoriter_ and imitative. The names and alphabetic order of the letters were first taught without any indication of their significance or even shape, and all possible combinations of syllables were committed before any words were learned. Reading and writing were then taught by dictation, and, in tracing the letters on wax-tablets with the stylus (Fig. 5), the hand of the pupil was at first guided by the teacher. Calculation was learned by counting on the fingers, by means of pebbles, or upon the abacus, and eventually sums were worked upon the tablets. [Illustration: (_a_) (_b_) (_c_) Fig. 5.--School materials from wall paintings: (_a_) Wax tablet and _capsa_, containing rolls, or books. (_b_) Three _stili_, _capsa_, and roll leaning against it. (_c_) Wax tablet, with _stilus_ tied to it.] [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Scene at a _ludus_ or Roman elementary school, taken from a fresco found at Herculaneum.] [Sidenote: Discipline and teachers.] [Sidenote: Slaves to accompany pupils.] [Sidenote: Buildings.] Methods so devoid of interest were naturally accompanied by severe discipline. The rod, lash, and whip seem to have been in frequent use, and the names ordinarily applied to schoolmasters in Latin literature are suggestive of harshness and brutality. Moreover, a fresco found at Herculaneum depicts a boy held over the shoulders of another, with the master beating the victim upon the bare back (Fig. 6). Under these circumstances, no real qualifications were required of the teacher, and his social standing was low. The Greek custom of having the boy accompanied to and from school by a slave that was otherwise incapacitated by age or physical disability soon came to be imitated by the Romans. When a special building was employed for the school, it was usually a mere booth or veranda, and the pupils sat on the floor or upon stones. [Sidenote: Curriculum.] [Sidenote: Methods and discipline.] [Sidenote: Buildings.]