~Ceramic industries.~ Many articles of greatest practical importance, ranging from the roughest brick and tile to the finest porcelain and chinaware, are made from some form of kaolin, or clay. No very precise classification of such ware can be made, as the products vary greatly in properties, depending upon the materials used and the treatment during manufacture. Porcelain is made from the purest kaolin, to which must be added some less pure, plastic kaolin, since the pure substance is not sufficiently plastic. There is also added some more fusible substance, such as feldspar, gypsum, or lime, together with some pure quartz. The constituents must be ground very fine, and when thoroughly mixed and moistened must make a plastic mass which can be molded into any desired form. The article molded from such materials is then burned. In this process the article is slowly heated to a point at which it begins to soften and almost fuse, and then it is allowed to cool slowly. At this stage, a very thin vessel will be translucent and have an almost glassy fracture; if, however, it is somewhat thicker, or has not been heated quite so high, it will still be porous, and partly on this account and partly to improve its appearance it is usually glazed. Glazing is accomplished by spreading upon the object a thin layer of a more fusible mixture of the same materials as compose the body of the object itself, and again heating until the glaze melts to a transparent glassy coating upon the surface of the vessel. In some cases fusible mixtures of quite different composition from that used in fashioning the vessel may be used as a glaze. Oxides of lead, zinc, and barium are often used in this way. When less carefully selected materials are used, or quite thick vessels are made, various grades of stoneware are produced. The inferior grades are glazed by throwing a quantity of common salt into the kiln towards the end of the first firing. In the form of vapor the salt attacks the surface of the baked ware and forms an easily fusible sodium silicate upon it, which constitutes a glaze. Vitrified bricks, made from clay or ground shale, are burned until the materials begin to fuse superficially, forming their own glaze. Other forms of brick and tile are not glazed at all, but are left porous. The red color of ordinary brick and earthenware is due to an oxide of iron formed in the burning process. The decorations upon china are sometimes painted upon the baked ware and then glazed over, and sometimes painted upon the glaze and burned in by a third firing. Care must be taken to use such pigments as are not affected by a high heat and do not react chemically with the constituents of the baked ware or the glaze. EXERCISES