2. Moreover they affirm with no fabulous lying but with historic proof, that Diomedes’ companions were changed to birds. And certain say that witches are created from human beings. For the shapes of the wicked change for their many villanies, and they turn bodily into beasts, whether by magic charms or by the use of herbs. 3. Many creatures go through a natural change and by decay pass into different forms, as bees [are formed] by the decaying flesh of calves, as beetles from horses, locusts from mules, scorpions from crabs. BOOK XII ON ANIMALS INTRODUCTION The history of zoölogical knowledge during the ten centuries from Aristotle to Isidore may be indicated with sufficient clearness by enumerating three of the works that survive. They are Aristotle’s “History of Animals”, the zoölogical part (Books VIII-XI) of Pliny’s “Natural History”, and Isidore’s “On Animals”. On the first, belonging to the fourth century B.C., Cuvier has pronounced judgment as “one of the greatest monuments that the genius of man has raised to the natural sciences”.[329] Pliny, four centuries later, is commended by Cuvier for his industry and learning, but reproached for his predilection for the fabulous, and his absolute lack of scientific order and of the scientific spirit.[330] Six centuries later a résumé of zoölogical knowledge is given in the _Etymologies_, which is of no value except for the information it gives of the benighted character of the medieval intellect. [329] Cuvier, _Histoire des Sciences Naturelles_, vol. i, p. 166. [330] Cuvier, vol. i, p. 264. Isidore’s zoölogy is shown in a better light, however, when it is compared with that of the _Physiologus_,[331] his great rival in this field throughout the Middle Ages. This is a collection of fabulous accounts of animals, with the moral and spiritual lessons that were drawn from them. In it the ancient science is seen in its most de-secularized form; nature knowledge is made absolutely subservient to religious teaching, and in the process actual knowledge is driven out and fable takes its place. It must be reckoned to Isidore’s credit that he resisted the temptation to give “the higher meaning”. [331] The _Physiologus_ probably originated at Alexandria in the first century A.D., and was translated into the Latin about the end of the fourth century. It was very popular with the church fathers. Isidore’s _De Animalibus_ exhibits its influence in many passages. See Lauchert, _Physiologus_ (Strassburg, 1891), p. 103. A Greek version of the _Physiologus_ is given by Lauchert and a Latin by Cahier in _Mélanges d’Archéologie_, Paris, vols. ii, iii, iv (1851–53). ANALYSIS I. Flocks and herds and beasts of burden (ch. 1). II. Wild beasts (ch. 2). III. Small creatures (ch. 3). IV. Serpents (ch. 4). V. Worms (ch. 5). VI. Fishes (ch. 6). VII. Birds (ch. 7). VIII. Small flying creatures (ch. 8). EXTRACTS Chapter 1. On flocks and work animals.