Transcriber’s Notes: Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ in the original text. Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= in the original text. Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. Deprecated spellings have been preserved. Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. ANCIENT AND MODERN ENGINEERING AND THE ISTHMIAN CANAL. BY WILLIAM H. BURR, C.E., _Professor of Civil-Engineering in Columbia University; Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Great Britain._ _FIRST EDITION._ FIRST THOUSAND. NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 1903. Copyright, 1902, BY WILLIAM H. BURR ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. INTRODUCTION. This book is the outcome of a course of six lectures delivered at the Cooper Union in the city of New York in February and March, 1902, under the auspices of Columbia University. It seemed desirable by the President of the University that the subject-matter of the lectures should be prepared for ultimate publication. The six Parts of the book, therefore, comprise the substance of the six lectures, suitably expanded for the purposes of publication. It may be interesting to state that the half-tone illustrations have, with scarcely an exception, been prepared from photographs of the actual subjects illustrated. All such illustrations in Parts V and VI devoted to the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes are made from photographs at the various locations by members of the force of the Isthmian Canal Commission; they are, therefore, absolutely true representations of the actual localities to which they apply. For other illustrations the author wishes to express his indebtedness to Messrs. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, Messrs. Turneaure and Russell, John Wiley & Sons, The Morrison-Jewell Filtration Company, Mr. H. M. Sperry, Signal Engineer, _The Engineering News_, _The Railroad Gazette_, The American Society of Civil Engineers, The Standard Switch and Signal Company, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, the American Locomotive Works, Mr. Clemens Herschel, and the International Pump Company, and to others from whom the author has received courtesies which he deeply appreciates.