Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate division of plants. They are now known to be organisms, each species of which is a constant association of a fungus and an alga. The thallus is ordinarily made up of fungous mycelium or tissue within which the imprisoned alga is definitely distributed. The result is a growth unlike either component. This association of alga and fungus is usually spoken of as _symbiosis_, or mutually helpful growth, the alga furnishing some things, the fungus others, and both together being able to accomplish work that neither could do independently. By others this union is considered to be a mild form of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga. As favourable to this view, the facts are cited that each component is able to grow independently, and that under such conditions the algal cells seem to thrive better than when imprisoned by the fungus. Lichens propagate by means of _soredia_, which are tiny parts separated from the body of the thallus, and consisting of one or more algal cells overgrown with fungus threads. These are readily observed in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually ascospores, which are always the product of the fungus element, and which reproduce the lichen by germinating in the presence of algal cells, to which the hyphæ immediately cling. Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places, and, by means of acids which they secrete, they attack and slowly disintegrate even the hardest rocks. By making thin sections of the thallus with a sharp razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is easy to distinguish the two components in many lichens. LIVERWORTS [Illustration: FIG. 288. FIG. 289. PLANTS OF MARCHANTIA.]