III. SURVIVAL OF THE FIT 7 IV. PLANT SOCIETIES 9 V. THE PLANT BODY 15 VI. SEEDS AND GERMINATION 20 VII. THE ROOT—THE FORMS OF ROOTS 32 VIII. THE ROOT—FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 38 IX. THE STEM—KINDS AND FORMS—PRUNING 49 X. THE STEM—ITS GENERAL STRUCTURE 59 XI. LEAVES—FORM AND POSITION 73 XII. LEAVES—STRUCTURE AND ANATOMY 86 XIII. LEAVES—FUNCTION OR WORK 92 XIV. DEPENDENT PLANTS 106 XV. WINTER AND DORMANT BUDS 111 XVI. BUD PROPAGATION 121 XVII. HOW PLANTS CLIMB 129 XVIII. THE FLOWER—ITS PARTS AND FORMS 133 XIX. THE FLOWER—FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 144 XX. FLOWER-CLUSTERS 155 XXI. FRUITS 163 XXII. DISPERSAL OF SEEDS 172 XXIII. PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS 176 XXIV. STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 182 INDEX 205 BEGINNERS’ BOTANY CHAPTER I NO TWO PLANTS OR PARTS ARE ALIKE [Illustration: FIG. 1.—NO TWO BRANCHES ARE ALIKE. (Hemlock.) ] If one compares _any two plants_ of the same kind ever so closely, it will be found that they _differ from each other_. The difference is apparent in size, form, colour, mode of branching, number of leaves, number of flowers, vigour, season of maturity, and the like; or, in other words, all plants and animals _vary from an assumed or standard type_. If one compares _any two branches or twigs_ on a tree, it will be found that they differ in size, age, form, vigour, and in other ways (Fig. 1). If one compares _any two leaves_, it will be found that they are unlike in size, shape, colour, veining, hairiness, markings, cut of the margins, or other small features. In some cases (as in Fig. 2) the differences are so great as to be readily seen in a small black-and-white drawing. If the pupil extends his observation to animals, he will still find the same truth; for probably _no two living objects are exact duplicates_. If any person finds two objects that he thinks to be exactly alike, let him set to work to discover the differences, remembering that _nothing in nature is so small or apparently trivial as to be overlooked_. [Illustration: FIG. 2.—NO TWO LEAVES ARE ALIKE.]