[Footnote 160: McDougall: Introduction to Social Psychology, London, 1908, p. 50.] [Footnote 161: James: The Energies of Men, p. 227, in Memories and Studies, New York, 1911.] [Footnote 162: Mooney: The Ghost-Dance Religion, United States Bureau of Ethnology, 1892-3, p. 924.] [Footnote 163: Schaff: Religious Encyclopedia, New York, 1908, iii, p. 346.] [Footnote 164: Southey: Life of Charles Wesley, New York, 1820, ii, p. 164.] [Footnote 165: Southey: _Loc. cit._, i, p. 240.] [Footnote 166: Brown: The Dervishes, London, 1868, pp. 218-222, 260.] [Footnote 167: Majer: Geschichte der Ordalien, Jena, 1796, pp. 258-261.] [Footnote 168: Lea: Superstition and Force, Philadelphia, 1892, p. 178.] [Footnote 169: Narodny: Musical America, 1914, xx, No. 14.] [Footnote 170: Hall: American Journal of Psychology, 1914, xxv, p. 154.] CHAPTER XIII THE NATURE OF HUNGER On the same plane with pain and the dominant emotions of fear and anger, as agencies which determine the action of organisms, is the sensation of hunger. It is a sensation so peremptory, so disagreeable, so tormenting, that men have committed crimes in order to assuage it. It has led to cannibalism, even among the civilized. It has resulted in suicide. And it has defeated armies--for the aggressive spirit becomes detached from larger loyalties and turns personal and selfish as hunger pangs increase in vigor and insistence. In 1905, while observing in myself the rhythmic sounds produced by the activities of the alimentary tract, I had occasion to note that the sensation of hunger was not constant but recurrent, and that the moment of its disappearance was often associated with a rather loud gurgling sound as heard through the stethoscope. This and other evidence, indicative of a source of the hunger sensations in the contractions of the digestive canal, I reported in 1911.[171] That same year, with the help of one of my students, A. L. Washburn, I obtained final proof for this inference. Appetite and Hunger The sensations of appetite and hunger are so complex and so intimately interrelated that any discussion of either sensation is sure to go astray unless at the start there is clear understanding of the meanings of the terms. The view has been propounded that appetite is the first degree of hunger, the mild and pleasant stage, agreeable in character; and that hunger itself is a more advanced condition, disagreeable and even painful--the unpleasant result of not satisfying the appetite.[172] On this basis appetite and hunger would differ only quantitatively. Another view, which seems more justifiable, is that the two experiences are fundamentally different.