Guérard interprets the term _stationarius_ as standing first for a scribe with a fixed location (_un écrivain sédentaire_), as opposed to a copyist who was prepared to accept work in any place where it could be secured. Later, the term was understood to designate a master scribe who directed the work of a bureau of copyists; and still later, the _stationarius_, sometimes then called _stationarius librorum_, possessed a complete book-making establishment, where were employed, in addition to the copyists, the illuminators, binders, and other artisans. At this stage of his development, the _stationarius_ has become the equivalent of the printer-publisher of a later generation. Guérard is inclined to limit the earlier use in Paris of the term _librarius_ to the keeper of a shop in which books were kept for sale, but in which no book-production was carried on.[284] It is evident, however, that in France, as in Italy, there was no very definite or consistent use of the several terms, and that before the introduction of printing, _librarius_ and _stationarius_ were applied almost indifferently to dealers having to do either with the production or with the sale of books. Chassant is authority for the statement that at the time of the introduction of printing into France there were in the two cities of Paris and Orleans more than ten thousand individual scribes or copyists who gained their living with their pens.[285] It is not surprising that the first printers, whose diabolical invention took the bread away from these workers, had their lives threatened and their work interrupted. The letters-patent of Charles V., dated November 5, 1368, specify fourteen _libraires_ and eleven _écrivains_ (employing _stationarii_) as at that time registered in Paris. No one was admitted to the profession of _librarius_ or _stationarius_ who was not a man of approved standing and character, and who had not also given evidence of an adequate and scholarly knowledge of manuscript interpretation and of the subject to which he proposed to give attention. The examination was made before the four chief publishers (_les quatre grands libraires_). Having secured the approval of the board of publishers, the applicant was obliged to secure also acceptance from the representatives of the Rector, and to submit certain guarantees for the satisfactory performance of his responsibilities. He was called upon to submit, for himself and heirs, all his property as well as his person to the control of the court of Paris as a pledge for the execution of his trust. As late as 1618, in the reign of Charles IX., the master printers (_i. e._, printer-publishers) were obliged to hold certificates from the Rector and the university, to the effect that they were skilled in the art of printing, and that they possessed full knowledge of Latin and of Greek.