That these moraines were posterior to the volcanic eruptions in the district, is evident from the examination of a broad stone ridge, near the highest point to the east of Erzeroum, where at a height of 7,000 feet the Jurassic limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of several miles in extent. Traces of a crater were visible. Above, the granite peaks rose to a height of 9,000 feet; below, a wide moraine crossed the road, composed of volcanic fragments mixed with granite. Consequently, it must have been formed after the volcano had become extinct. Similar traces are to be found at Keskeem Boughaz. Mr. Palgrave concludes “that the ice-cap of the north-eastern Anatolian watershed, in post-pleiocene (pleistocene) times, must have reached downwards, on the northern side of the range, to 7,000 feet above the present sea-level, while some of the glaciers issuing from it descended to about 4,500 of the same measurement.” Striated and ice-worn boulders, especially of granite, were very abundant. This region, it must be observed, is within sight of the lofty granite range of Tortoom, which is “streaked with perpetual snow.” After leaving the Chorok valley and getting on to the watershed, at a distance of fifty miles to the north-east, Mr. Palgrave reached the main ridge or backbone of the land. Here, among the limestone ledges, about 6,400 feet above the sea, is a colossal moraine, formed of worn granite blocks, partly overgrown with forest, and descending from a height of over 8,000 feet. It is divided, by a valley, from a lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped out here and there into deep oval lakes, always full of blue water. The sides of the plateau are strewn with boulders of granite, brought from the higher peaks about five miles off. These boulders occur in greater or less abundance down to the basin of the Ardahan, near the sources of the Kur or Cyras, which joins the Araxes before flowing into the Caspian. The height of this Ardahan basin is about 6,500 feet; it is, but for a slight easterly slope, a water level. The bottom consists of deep alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders; the sides are rounded and smoothed, and bear every mark of long ice-covering. These plateaux, studded with lakes, stretch east to Russo-Georgia, till their greatest height is gained at Kel Dagh, a mountain about 11,000 feet high: thence they descend to the plains of Georgia and the Black Sea.