a conciliatory spirit (_Institutt. hist. eccl. V. et N. T._ 7 vols., Leyd., 1777 ff.). In the Catholic Church, =Royko= of Prague, favoured by the reforming tendencies of the Emperor Joseph II., was able with impunity to give expression to his anti-hierarchical views in an almost cynically outspoken statement (_Einl. in d. chr. Rel. u. K. G._ Prague, 1788). § 5.4. =The 19th Century.= In his _Handb. d. chr. K. G._, publ. in 1801 (in 2nd ed. contin. by Rettberg, 7 vols., Giessen, 1834), =Chr. Schmidt= of Giessen expressly maintained that the supreme and indeed the only conditions of a correct treatment of history consisted in the direct study of the original documents, and a truly objective exhibition of the results derived therefrom. By objectivity, however, he understood indifference and coolness of the subject in reference to the object, which must inevitably render the representation hard, colourless, and lifeless. =Gieseler= of Göttingen, † 1854, commended this mode of treatment by his excellent execution, and in his _Lehrbuch_ (5 vols., Bonn, 1824-1857; Engl. transl. “Compendium of Church History.” 5 vols., Edinb., 1846-1856), a master-piece of the first rank, which supports, explains and amplifies the author’s own admirably compressed exposition by skilfully chosen extracts from the documents, together with original and thoughtful criticism under the text. A temperate, objective, and documentary treatment of church history is also given in the _Handbuch_ of =Engelhardt= of Erlangen (5 vols., Erlang., 1832 ff.). Among the so-called _Compendia_ the most popular was the _Universalgeschichte d. K._ by =Stäudlin=, of Göttingen (Hann., 1807; 5th ed. by Holzhausen, 1833). It was superseded by the _Lehrbuch_ of =Hase=, of Jena (Leipz., 1834; 10th ed., 1877; Engl. transl. from 7th Germ. ed., New York, 1855), which is a generally pregnant and artistically tasteful exposition with often excellent and striking features, subtle perception, and with ample references to documentary sources. The _Vorlesungen_ of =Schleiermacher=, † 1834, published after his death by Bonell (Brl., 1840), assume acquaintance with the usual materials, and present in a fragmentary manner the general outlines of the church’s course of development. =Niedner’s= _Lehrbuch_ (2nd ed., Brl., 1866), is distinguished by a philosophical spirit, independent treatment, impartial judgment, and wealth of contents with omission of customary matter, but marred by the scholastic stiffness and awkwardness of its style. =Gfrörer’s= († 1861) _Kirchengeschichte_ (7 vols. reaching down to A.D. 1000, Stuttg., 1840) treats early Christianity as purely a product of the culture of the age, and knows of no moving principles in the historical development of the Christian church but clerical self-seeking, political interests, machinations and intrigues. Nevertheless the book, especially in the portion