Copyrights continued in perpetuity until all royal privileges were abolished in 1789 by the National Assembly, after which in July, 1793, a general copyright law was passed, granting copyright to an author for his life and to his heirs for ten years thereafter. {Sidenote: In England} In England, a Royal Printer was appointed in 1504, and to his successor, Richard Pynson, in 1518, the first printing "privilege" was issued, in the form of a prohibition for two years of the printing by any other person of a certain speech to which this first English copyright notice was appended. Bishop Fell, in his memoirs on the state of printing in the University of Oxford, states that this University had been granted certain exclusive privileges of transcribing and multiplying books by means of writing; and Lowndes in his early "Historical sketch of the law of copyright," published in 1840 and 1842, cites many early privileges, most commonly for seven years, granted after the invention of printing. An early enactment of Richard III, in 1483, had encouraged the circulation of books by exempting from certain restraints on aliens "any artificer, or merchant stranger, of what nation or country he be, for bringing into this realm, or selling by retail or otherwise, any books written or printed, or for inhabiting within this said realm for the same intent, or any scrivener, alluminor, reader, or printer of such books." But fifty years later, under Henry VIII, this exemption was repealed by an act, "for printers and binders of books," which provided that no persons "resident or inhabitant within this realm shall buy to sell again, any printed books brought from any parts out of the King's obeysance, ready bound in boards, leather, or parchment," or buy "of any stranger born out of the King's obedience, other than of denizens, any manner of printed books brought from any parties beyond the sea, except only by engross, and not by retail"--the buyer to be punished by a fine, of which a moiety was to go to the informer. The act also contained provisions to "reform and redress," through the Chancery judges with "twelve honest and discreet persons," "too high and unreasonable prices." {Sidenote: Book restriction}