Now it is noteworthy that the chromatic phenomena exhibited with the uncorrected glass lens are quite well shown by the lenses of the eye. It is only necessary to hold the lantern-slide before a bright background and gradually bring it so close to the eye that the design cannot be seen distinctly. The black bands will then appear to turn brown, the white ones blue, and the central spot bright red. The printed diagram (Fig. 15) will itself show the colours if it is held at a distance of four to five inches from one eye in a good light. One more experiment may be referred to. Look with one eye at a well-lighted page of print, and with a strip of brown paper, held quite near the eye, cover about half the pupil. The black letters will now appear to be bordered with colour--blue towards the apparent edge of the brown paper, orange on the opposite side. If the letters are white on a black ground, as sometimes happens in the case of advertisements, the colours will be interchanged. The cause of the coloured borders will be readily understood from an inspection of the diagram Fig. 12; but it must be remembered that the images on the retina are inverted. Thus it is proved beyond all question that the lenses of the eye do not form an achromatic combination. Another peculiarity by which the eye is affected, and which does not occur in optical instruments, is that known as _astigmatism_. The surface of the cornea, which, with the aqueous humour, forms the outer lens, is not often perfectly spherical; generally it is shaped something like the bowl of a spoon, the curvature being greater vertically than horizontally. Rays issuing from a luminous point do not, after refraction by such a lens, cross at a single focus, but along two short straight lines, the one horizontal the other vertical, which are at different distances from the lens; thus a distinct image of a small point cannot anywhere be produced. [Illustration: _Fig. 16.--Effect of Astigmatism._] A very curious result follows from this deformity. If two straight lines are drawn at right angles to each other, as in Fig. 16, it is impossible to see both of them quite clearly at the same time. When the paper is held at a certain short distance from the eye--about eight or nine inches--the horizontal line appears black and well defined, while the other is rather grey and indistinct; at a greater distance the upright line seems to be the blacker. The effect is very well shown by the diagram, Fig. 17. To most persons the lines occupying the middle portion will appear either much blacker or much lighter than those at the two ends, though in fact they are exactly alike. When this form of astigmatism is excessive, it may be corrected by the use of spectacles fitted with cylindrical lenses. [Illustration: _Fig. 17.--Effect of Astigmatism._]