§ 279. With regard to the quantity of the subject of a proposition no difficulty can arise. The use of the words 'all' or 'some,' or of a variety of equivalent expressions, mark the subject as being distributed or undistributed respectively, while, if there be nothing to mark the quantity, the subject is for that reason reckoned undistributed. § 280. With regard to the predicate more difficulty may arise. § 281. It has been laid down already that, in the ordinary form of proposition, the subject is used in extension and the predicate in intension. Let us illustrate the meaning of this by an example. If someone were to say 'Cows are ruminants,' you would have a right to ask him whether he meant 'all cows' or only 'some.' You would not by so doing be asking for fresh information, but merely for a more distinct explanation of the statement already made. The subject being used in extension naturally assumes the form of the whole or part of a class. But, if you were to ask the same person 'Do you mean that cows are all the ruminants that there are, or only some of them?' he would have a right to complain of the question, and might fairly reply, 'I did not mean either one or the other; I was not thinking of ruminants as a class. I wished merely to assert an attribute of cows; in fact, I meant no more than that cows chew the cud.' § 282. Since therefore a predicate is not used in extension at all, it cannot possibly be known whether it is used in its whole extent or not. § 283. It would appear then that every predicate is necessarily undistributed; and this consequence does follow in the case of affirmative propositions. § 284. In a negative proposition, however, the predicate, though still used in intension, must be regarded as distributed. This arises from the nature of a negative proposition. For we must remember that in any proposition, although the predicate be not meant in extension, it always admits of being so read. Now we cannot exclude one class from another without at the same time wholly excluding that other from the former. To take an example, when we say 'No horses are ruminants,' the meaning we really wish to convey is that no member of the class, horse, has a particular attribute, namely, that of chewing the cud. But the proposition admits of being read in another form, namely, 'That no member of the class, horse, is a member of the class, ruminant.' For by excluding a class from the possession of a given attribute, we inevitably exclude at the same time any class of things which possess that attribute from the former class. § 285. The difference between the use of a predicate in an affirmative and in a negative proposition may be illustrated to the eye as follows. To say 'All A is B' may mean either that A is included in B or that A and B are exactly co-extensive. [Illustration]