=Education.=--The importance for the moral life of the modern development of science is paralleled by the significance of modern education. The universities date from the Middle Ages. The classical interest of humanism found its medium in the college or "grammar school." The invention of printing and the growth of commerce promoted elementary schools. Supposed necessities of popular government stimulated a general educational movement in the United States. Modern trade and industry have called out the technical school. Germany has educated for national defense and economic advance; England has concerned itself preëminently for the education of statesmen and administrators; and the United States for the education of voters. But, whatever the motive, education has been made so general as to constitute a new element in the modern consciousness and a new factor to be reckoned with. The moral right of every child to have an education, measured not by his parents' abilities, but by his own capacity, is gaining recognition. The moral value of a possession, which is not, like material goods, exclusive, but common, will be more appreciated when we have worked out a more social and democratic type of training.[95] =Theoretical Interpretation of this Period in Ethical Systems.=--While the theoretical interpretation of this period is to be treated in Part II., we may point out here that the main lines of development which we have traced find expression in the two systems which have been most influential during the past century. These are the systems of Kant and of the Utilitarians. The political and certain aspects of the intellectual development are reflected in the system of Kant. He emphasized freedom, the power and authority of reason, human dignity, the supreme value of character, and the significance of a society in which every member is at once sovereign and subject. The Utilitarians represent the values brought out in the development of industry, education, and the arts. They claimed that the good is happiness, and happiness of the greatest number. The demands for individual satisfaction and for social distribution of goods are voiced in this system. LITERATURE The histories of philosophy and of ethics give the theoretical side. In addition to those previously mentioned the works of Höffding, Falckenberg, and Fischer may be named. Stephen, _English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, and _The Utilitarians_; Fichte, _Characteristics of the Present Age_ (in _Popular Works_, tr. by Smith); Stein, _Die sociale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie_, 1897; Comte, _Positive Philosophy_, tr. by Martineau, 1875, Book VI. Tufts and Thompson, _The Individual and His Relation to Society as Reflected in British Ethics_, 1896, 1904; Merz, _History of European Thought in the 19th Century_, 1904; Robertson, _A Short History of Free Thought_, 1899; Bonar, _Philosophy and Political Economy in Some of Their Historical Relations_, 1893.