At a much more recent date, in the ’seventies, Herbert Spencer’s theory of evolution gave origin in Russia to a remarkable work, _The Theory of Progress_, by M. M. Mikhailovsky. The part which belongs in progressive evolution to _differentiation_, and the part which belongs in it to an _integration_ of aptitudes and activities, were discussed by the Russian author with depth of thought, and Spencer’s differentiation-formula was accordingly completed. And, finally, out of a number of smaller monographs, I must mention a suggestive little book by J. R. Dodge, the United States statistician (_Farm and Factory: Aids derived by Agriculture from Industries_, New York, 1886). The same question was discussed in it from a practical American point of view. Half a century ago a harmonious union between agricultural and industrial pursuits, as also between brain work and manual work, could only be a remote desideratum. The conditions under which the factory system asserted itself, as well as the obsolete forms of agriculture which prevailed at that time, prevented such a union from being feasible. Synthetic production was impossible. However, the wonderful simplification of the technical processes in both industry and agriculture, partly due to an ever-increasing division of labour--in analogy with what we see in biology--has rendered the synthesis possible; and a distinct tendency towards a synthesis of human activities becomes now apparent in modern economical evolution. This tendency is analysed in the subsequent chapters--a special weight being laid upon the present possibilities of agriculture, which are illustrated by a number of examples borrowed from different countries, and upon the small industries to which a new impetus is being given by the new methods of transmission of motive power. The substance of these essays was published in 1888-1890 in the _Nineteenth Century_, and of one of them in the _Forum_. However, the tendencies indicated therein have been confirmed during the last ten years by such a mass of evidence that a very considerable amount of new matter had to be introduced, while the chapters on agriculture and the small trades had to be written anew. I take advantage of this opportunity to address my best thanks to the editors of the _Nineteenth Century_ and the _Forum_ for their kind permission of reproducing these essays in a new form, as also to those friends and correspondents who have aided me in collecting information about agriculture and the petty trades. P. KROPOTKIN. BROMLEY, KENT, 1898. CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I. THE DECENTRALISATION OF INDUSTRIES 17 Division of labour and integration--The spread of industrial skill--Each nation its own producer of manufactured goods--The United Kingdom--France--Germany--Russia--“German Competition.”