This school of direct imitation flourished for about a century. Then it suddenly ceased and for another century there was almost no lyric production of any sort. In the fourteenth century Guillaume de Machault (1295- 1377) inaugurated a revival, hardly of lyric poetry, but of the cultivation of lyric forms. He introduced a new style which made the old conventional themes again presentable by refinement of phrase and rhetorical embellishments, and he directed the pursuit of form not to the invention of ever new variations, but to the perfection of a few forms. And it is noticeable that these fixed forms were not selected from those elaborated under Provençal influence, but were the developments of the forms of the earlier _chansons à danser_, the _rondets_, _ballettes_, and _virelis_. The new poetic art that proceeded from Machault spent itself mainly in refining the phrase of the old commonplaces, allegories, and reflections, and on turning them out in _rondels_, _rondeaux_, _triolets_, _ballades_, _chants royaux_, and _virelis_. The new fashion was followed by FROISSART (1337-1410), EUSTACHE DESCHAMPS (approximately 1340-1407), who rhymed one thousand four hundred and forty ballades, CHRISTINE DE PISAN (1363-_?_), and CHARLES D'ORLÉANS (1391-1465), who marks the culmination of the movement by the perfection of formal elegance and easy grace which his rondels and ballades exhibit. All this lyric poetry had been the product of an aristocratic and polite society. But there existed at the same time in the north of France a current of lyrical production in an entirely different social region. The bourgeoisie, at least in the larger and industrial towns, followed the example of the princely courts, and vied with them in cultivating a formal lyric, and numerous societies, called _puis_, arranged poetical competitions and offered prizes. Naturally in their hands the courtly lyric only degenerated. But there were now and then men of greater individuality who, if their verses lacked something of the refinement and elaborateness of the courtly lyric, more than atoned for it by the greater directness and sincerity of their utterance, and by their closer contact with common life and real experience. Here belong the farewell poems (_congés_) of JEAN BODEL (twelfth century) and ADAM DE LA HALLE (about 1235-1285), of Arras; here belong especially two Parisians who were real poets, RUTEBEUF (d. about 1280) and FRANÇOIS VILLON (1431- 146?), who distinctly announces the end of the old order of things and the beginning of modern times, not by any renewal of the fixed forms, within which he continued to move, but by cutting loose from the conventional round of subjects and ideas, and by giving a strikingly direct and personal expression to thoughts and feelings that he had the originality to think and feel for himself.