the œsophagus and the great intestines, is not perhaps as entirely so with regard to the bladder, the contraction of which makes the ridges within less evident; but they are not sufficient to destroy the general law. It is also nearly the same with the gall-bladder; yet here we find another cause. The gall-bladder, alternately observed in hunger and during digestion, contains double the bile in the first case that it does in the second, as I have had occasion to see very often indeed, in experiments made for this object or with other views. Now, when the bladder is in part empty, it does not contract upon the bile that remains, with the force of the stomach when it contains but few aliments, or with the power of the bladder when it contains but little urine. It is then flaccid; so that its being distended or not has but a slight influence upon the folds of its mucous membrane. Besides, in saying that the mucous membranes always exhibit, with some slight difference, the same surface in the extension and contraction of their respective organs, I intend to speak only of the ordinary state of the functions, and not of those enormous dilatations of which we often see the stomach, the bladder, and more rarely the intestines become the seat. Then there is no doubt, a real extension and contraction, which coincide in the membrane with those of the organ. A remarkable observation which the free surface of the mucous membranes exhibits, and which I have already pointed out, is, that this surface is everywhere in contact with bodies heterogenous to that of the animal, whether these bodies introduced from without to nourish it have not yet been assimilated to its substance, as we see in the alimentary canal and in the wind-pipe; or whether they come from within, as we observe in all the excretory ducts of the glands, which all open into cavities lined by the mucous membranes, and transmit without particles which, after having contributed for some time to the composition of the solids, become heterogeneous to them, and are separated from them by the constant motion of decomposition which takes place in living bodies. Hence we ought to regard the mucous membranes as limits, and barriers, which, placed between our organs and the bodies that are foreign to them, defend them from the mischievous impression of these bodies, and serve consequently within, the same functions which the skin performs without, with respect to the bodies which surround that of the animal, and which tend incessantly to act upon it.