there will be no means left of salvation.”(705) READINGS:—*Bellarmine, _De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio_ (_Opera Omnia_, ed. Fèvre, Vols. V and VI, Paris 1873).—*Dechamps, S. J., _De Haeresi Ianseniana_, Paris 1645.—F. Wörter, _Die christliche Lehre über das Verhältnis von Gnade und Freiheit bis auf Augustinus_, Freiburg 1856.—*Palmieri, _De Gratia Divina Actuali_, thes. 39-48, Gulpen 1885.—S. Schiffini, _De Gratia Divina_, pp. 357 sqq., 377 sqq., Freiburg 1901.—B. J. Otten, S. J., _A Manual of the History of Dogmas_, Vol. II, St. Louis 1918, pp. 507 sqq. Section 2. Theological Systems Devised To Harmonize The Dogmas Of Grace And Free-Will The relation of grace to free-will may be regarded from a twofold point of view. We may take grace as the primary factor and trace it in its action on the human will; or, starting from the latter, we may endeavor to ascertain how free-will is affected by grace. The first-mentioned method has given birth to two closely related theological systems, Thomism and Augustinianism; the latter to Molinism and Congruism, which are almost identical in substance. Besides these there is a fifth theory, which tries to reconcile the two extremes and may therefore be called eclectic. That the human will is free, yet subject to the influence of grace, is an article of faith unhesitatingly accepted by all Catholic theologians. It is in trying to explain how grace and free-will coöperate, that the above-mentioned schools differ. In approaching this extremely difficult and obscure problem we consider it our duty to warn the student against preconceived opinions and to remind him that the different systems which we are about to examine are all tolerated by the Church. To-day, when so many more important things are at stake and the faith is viciously assailed from without, the ancient controversy between Thomism and Molinism had better be left in abeyance. Article 1. Thomism And Augustinianism Thomism and Augustinianism both hinge on the concept of _gratia efficax ab intrinseco s. per se_, whereas Molinism and Congruism will not admit even the existence of such a grace. 1. THE THOMISTIC THEORY OF GRACE.—The true founder of the Thomistic system is not St. Thomas Aquinas, who is also claimed by the Molinists, but the learned Dominican theologian Bañez (1528-1604). His teaching may be summarized as follows: a) God is the First Cause (_causa prima_) and Prime Mover (_motor primus_) of all things, and all created or secondary causes (_causae secundae_) derive their being and faculties, nay, their very acts from Him. If any creature could act independently of God, God would cease to be _causa prima_ and _motor primus_.(706) The influence of the First Cause is universal, that is to say, it produces all creatural acts without exception,—necessary and free, good and bad,—because no secondary cause has power to act unless it is set in motion by the _motor primus_.