*C. v. Schäzler, _Natur und Übernatur: Das Dogma von der Gnade_, Mainz 1865; IDEM, _Neue Untersuchungen über das Dogma von der Gnade_, Mainz 1867; *J. E. Kuhn, _Die christliche Lehre von der göttlichen Gnade_, Tübingen 1868; Jos. Kleutgen, S. J., _Theologie der Vorseit_, Vol. II, 2nd ed., pp. 152 sqq., Münster 1872; R. Cercià, _De Gratia Christi_, 3 vols., Paris 1879; *C. Mazzella, S. J., _De Gratia Christi_, 4th ed., Rome 1895; *J. H. Oswald, _Die Lehre von der Heiligung, d. i. Gnade, Rechtfertigung, Gnadenwahl_, 3rd ed., Paderborn 1885; *D. Palmieri, S. J., _De Gratia Divina Actuali_, Gulpen 1885; *Heinrich-Gutberlet, _Dogmatische Theologie_, Vol. VIII, Mainz 1897; *S. Schiffini, S. J., _De Gratia Divina_, Freiburg 1901; G. Lahousse, S. J., _De Gratia Divina_, Louvain 1902; Chr. Pesch, S. J., _Praelectiones Dogmaticae_, Vol. V, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1908; G. van Noort, _De Gratia Christi_, Amsterdam 1908; E. J. Wirth, _Divine Grace_, New York 1903; S. J. Hunter, S. J., _Outlines of Dogmatic Theology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 sqq.; Wilhelm-Scannell, _A Manual of Catholic Theology_, Vol. II, 2nd ed., pp. 227 sqq., London 1901; A. Devine, _The Sacraments Explained_, 3rd ed. pp. 1-43, London 1905.—L. Labauche, S. S., _God and Man, Lectures on Dogmatic Theology II_, pp. 123 sqq., New York 1916.—J. E. Nieremberg, S. J., _The Marvels of Divine Grace_, tr. by Lady Lovat, London 1917. On the teaching of the Fathers cfr. Isaac Habert, _Theologiae Græcorum Patrum Vindicatae circa Universam Materiam Gratiae Libri III_, Paris 1646; E. Scholz, _Die Lehre des hl. Basilius von der Gnade_, Freiburg 1881; Hümmer, _Des hl. Gregor von Nazianz Lehre von der Gnade_, Kempten 1890; E. Weigl, _Die Heilslehre des hl. Cyrill von Alexandrien_, Mainz 1905. Chapter I. The Nature Of Actual Grace Section 1. Definition Of Actual Grace 1. GENERAL NOTION OF GRACE.—The best way to arrive at a correct definition of actual grace is by the synthetic method. We therefore begin with the general notion of grace. Like “nature,”(3) grace (_gratia_, χάρις) is a word of wide reach, used in a great variety of senses. Habert(4) enumerates no less than fourteen; which, however, may be reduced to four. a) Subjectively, grace signifies good will or benevolence shown by a superior to an inferior, as when a criminal is pardoned by the king’s grace. b) Objectively, it designates a favor inspired by good will or benevolence. In this sense the term may be applied to any free and gratuitous gift (_donum gratis datum_), as when a king bestows graces on his lieges. c) Grace may also mean personal charm or attractiveness. In this sense the term frequently occurs in Latin and Greek literature (the Three Graces). Charm elicits love and prompts a person to the bestowal of favors.