An excellent example of what may be done by applying such knowledge as exists of the habits of grasses, is afforded by the historic case of the planting up of shifting sand-dunes with species like _Psamma arenaria_, _Elymus arenarius_, _Agropyrum junceum_, &c. (together with sand-binding species of sedges) and so not only fixing the sand, but preparing it for gradual afforestation with bushes and eventually trees, and so saving enormous tracts of land and sums of money, as has been done on the West coasts of France. Moreover, the action of ruderal plants--including grasses--is to completely alter the nature of the poor soil and gradually fit it for other plants. Coverings of grass greatly affect the actions of heat and sunshine on the surface soil, and modify the effects of radiation and evaporation, to say nothing of the penetrating and other effects of the roots. Rhizomes and stolons break up stiff soils; and every engineer and forester knows how useful certain grasses are in keeping the surface-soil from being washed down by heavy rains on steep hill-sides or embankments. On the other hand, luxuriant growths of tall grasses may do harm to young plants, by their action as weeds and especially as shade-plants; though foresters can employ them in the latter capacity, under restrictions, to shelter young trees from the sun. Again, too much dry grass near a forest offers dangers from fire; and it is a well known fact that certain injurious animals, e.g. mice and other vermin, are favoured by a covering of grass. Graminaceæ are for the most part chalk-fleeing plants, in spite of the fact that certain species can grow in very thin layers of soil on chalk downs. They must be regarded as requiring moderate supplies of humus as a rule, and even sand-loving grasses are not real exceptions. The physiognomy of the grasses has always been regarded as a striking one, and Humboldt classed it as one of his 19 types of vegetation. As is well known they are sociable plants, often covering enormous areas--prairies, alps, steppes, &c.--with a few species, alone or densely scattered throughout a mixed herbage. They also represent characteristically the sun-plants, the erect leaves exposing their surfaces obliquely to the solar rays, and being often folded and nearly always narrow. The dead remains of these sociable grasses are an important factor in protecting the soil against drought and in facilitating humification, as well as in covering up plants during long winters or dry seasons, keeping the ground warmer and moister, and generally lessening the effect of extremes.