For the earliest biological achievements of Greek peoples we have to rely largely on information gleaned from artistic remains. It is true that we have a few fragments of the works of both Ionian and Italo-Sicilian philosophers, and in them we read of theoretical speculation as to the nature of life and of the soul, and we can thus form some idea of the first attempts of such workers as Alcmaeon of Croton (_c._ 500 B. C.) to lay bare the structure of animals by dissection.[2] The pharmacopœia also of some of the earliest works of the Hippocratic collection betrays considerable knowledge of both native and foreign plants.[3] Moreover, scattered through the pages of Herodotus and other early writers is a good deal of casual information concerning animals and plants, though such material is second-hand and gives us little information concerning the habit of exact observation that is the necessary basis of science. [2] The remains of Alcmaeon are given in H. Diels’ _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, Berlin, 1903, p. 103. Alcmaeon is considered in the companion chapter on _Greek Medicine_. [3] Especially the περὶ γυναικείης φύσιος, _On the nature of woman_, and the περὶ γυναικείων, _On (the diseases of) women_. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Lioness and young from an Ionian vase of the sixth century B. C. found at Caere in Southern Etruria (Louvre, Salle E, No. 298), from _Le Dessin des Animaux en Grèce d’après les vases peints_, by J. Morin, Paris (Renouard), 1911. The animal is drawing itself up to attack its hunters. The scanty mane, the form of the paws, the udders, and the dentition are all heavily though accurately represented.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. A, Jaw bones of lion; B, head of lioness from Caere vase (Fig. 1), after Morin. Note the careful way in which the artist has distinguished the molar from the cutting teeth.]