Later Galen and Hippocrates became a little more accessible, not by translation from the Greek, but by translation from the Arabic of a Syriac version. The first work to be so rendered was a version of _Aphorisms_ of Hippocrates which, however, as we have seen, were already available in Latin dress, together with the Hippocratic _Regimen in acute diseases_, and certain works of Galen as corruptly interpreted by Isaac Judaeus. These were rendered from Arabic into Latin by Constantine, an African adventurer who became a monk at Monte Cassino and died there in 1087. Constantine was a wretched craftsman with an imperfect knowledge of both Arabic and Latin. More effective was the great twelfth century translator from the Arabic, Gerard of Cremona (died 1185), who turned many medical works into Latin from Arabic, and who was followed by a whole host of imitators. Yet more important for the advance of medicine, however, was the learned revival of the thirteenth century. In the main that revival was based on translations from Arabic, but a certain number of works were also rendered direct from the Greek. During the thirteenth century Aristotle’s scientific works began to be treated in this way, but more important for the course of medicine were those of Galen, and they had to wait till the following century. The long treatise of Galen, περὶ χρείας τῶν ἐν ἀνθρώπου σώματι μορίων, _On the uses of the bodily parts in man_, was translated from the Greek into Latin by Nicholas of Reggio in the earlier part of the fourteenth century. This work, with all its defects, was by far the best account of the human body then available. Many manuscripts of the Latin version have survived, and it was translated into several vernaculars, including English, and profoundly influenced surgery. The rendering into Latin of this treatise, and its wide distribution, may be regarded as the starting-point of modern scientific medicine. Its appearance is moreover a part of the phenomenon of the revived interest in dissection which had begun to be practised in the Universities in the thirteenth century,[139] and was a generally accepted discipline in the fourteenth and fifteenth.[140] [139] Dissection of animals was practised at Salerno as early as the eleventh century. [140] The sources of the anatomical knowledge of the Middle Ages are discussed in detail in the following works: R. R. von Töply, _Studien zur Geschichte der Anatomie im Mittelalter_, Vienna, 1898; K. Sudhoff, _Tradition und Naturbeobachtung_, Leipzig, 1907; and also numerous articles in the _Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und Naturwissenschaften_; Charles Singer, ‘A Study in Early Renaissance Anatomy’, in _Studies in the History and Method of Science_, vol. i, Oxford, 1917.