It was the revival of art and literature under Charlemagne that was the beginning of artistic calligraphy, then followed the production of books outside the monasteries, classical authors, chronicles, and mirrors of various sciences. In the eleventh century we find monastic books and others of which the ornamentation is sometimes even splendid, such as Psalters, Evangeliaries, Bibles, and Missals, glowing with gold and colours. Already the Abbeys of Stavelot and Liége were high-class centres of production. St. Martin's of Tournay had a famous scriptorium also, noted for the beauty of its writing and its grand initial letters. Immediately following St. Martin's, the Abbeys of Gembloux, St. Bavon at Ghent, and others, produced or acquired MSS. of the most sumptuous kind, and before the thirteenth century the Netherlands had established quite a distinguished reputation. In a later chapter we shall deal with the development of its remarkable schools, whose work eventually took rank, not only among the most artistic, but the most prolific in Europe. CHAPTER XIV OTHONIAN ILLUMINATION Departure from Carolingian--Bird and serpent--Common use of dracontine forms in letter-ornament--Influence of metal-work on the forms of scroll-ornament--The vine-stem and its developments--Introduction of Greek taste and fashion into Germany--Cistercian illumination--The Othonian period--Influence of women as patronesses and practitioners--German princesses--The Empress Adelheid of Burgundy--The Empress Theophano--Henry II. and the Empress Cunegunda--Bamberg--Examples of Othonian art. Perhaps the first departure towards a new style arising out of the elements of Carolingian illumination is in the combination of the bird and serpent used for letter forms and continued into coils of vine-stem and foliage in combination with golden panelled frames or pilasters. The monsters thus produced seem to be a revival of the dracontine forms of the semi-barbarous Celtic and early Frankish arts. But the difference in elegance and refinement of drawing and beauty of colouring is very great indeed. Other animal forms are also made use of, nor is the human figure altogether absent. Sometimes entire letters are made up of the latter in various attitudes. Little scenes illustrative of the subject which the initial commences are often placed within it, as, for instance, in the B of the first psalm.[19] [19] A characteristic Othonian Evangeliary of the eleventh century, executed at the Abbey of Stavelot, may be seen in the Royal Library at Brussels. [Illustration: BIBLIA SACRA 12TH CENT. (LATE) _Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 2799, fol. 185 v._] [Illustration: EVANGELIA (PARIS USE) C. 1275 _Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 17341, fol. 120 v._]