[193] It is no longer necessary to demonstrate the nullity of the notion of _race_. It used to be applied to vague groups, formed by a nation or a language; for race as understood by historians (Greek, Roman, Germanic, Celtic, Slavonic races) has nothing but the name in common with race in the anthropological sense--that is, a group of men possessing the same hereditary characteristics. It has been reduced to an absurdity by the abuse Taine made of it. A very good criticism of it will be found in Lacombe (ibid., chap. xviii.), and in Robertson ("The Saxon and the Celt," London, 1897, 8vo). [194] There is no general agreement on the proper place in history of retrograde changes, of those oscillations which bring things back to the point from which they started. [195] The theory of chance as affecting history has been expounded in a masterly manner by M. Cournot, _Considérations sur la marche des idées et des événements dans les temps modernes_ (Paris, 1872, 2 vols. 8vo). [196] Lamprecht, in a long article, _Was ist Kulturgeschichte_, published in the _Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft_, New Series, vol. i., 1896, has attempted to base the history of civilisation on the theory of a collective soul of society producing "social-psychic" phenomena common to the whole society, and differing from period to period. This is a metaphysical hypothesis. [197] The expression _national_ history, introduced in the interests of patriotism, denotes the same thing. The history of the nation means practically the history of the State. [198] See Cournot, ibid., i. p. iv. [199] We have already (p. 143) treated of this fault of method. [200] The discussion of this argument, which was formerly much used in religious history, was a favourite subject with the earlier writers who treated of methodology, and still occupies a considerable space in the _Principes de la critique historique_ of Père de Smedt. [201] This is what Montesquieu attempted in his _Esprit des Lois_. In a course of lectures at the Sorbonne, I have endeavoured to give a sketch of such a comprehensive account.--[Ch. S.] [202] See p. 204. [203] Michelet has discredited the study of physiological influences by the abuse which he has made of it in the last part of his "History of France"; it is, however, indispensable for the understanding of a man's career. [204] On the subject of statistics, a method which is now perfected, a good summary with a bibliography will be found in the _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, Jena, 1890-94, Ia. 8vo. and two good methodical treatises, J. von. Mayr, _Theoretische Statistik_ and _Bevölkerungsstatistik_, in the collection of Marquardsen and Seydel, Freiburg, 1895 and 1897, Ia. 8vo. [205] As is done by Boardeau (_l'Histoire et les Historiens_, Paris, 1888, 8vo), who proposes to reduce the whole of history to a series of statistics. [206] A good example will be found in Lacombe, _De l'Histoire Considérée Comme Science_, p. 146.