This polisher must be turned quite flat and smoothed by a plane, as the willow, from its softness, is peculiarly difficult to turn. It is also of consequence to remark that both sides should be turned, so that the _lap_, when dry, is quite parallel. This _lap_ is most conveniently adapted to the common face chuck of a lathe with a conical screw, so that either surface may be used. This is made evident, when we state that this polisher is always used moist, and, to keep both surfaces parallel, must be entirely plunged in water before using, as both surfaces must be equally moist, otherwise the dry surface will be concave and the moist one convex. The polishing substance used with this _lap_ is putty powder (oxide of tin), which ought to be well washed, to free it from grit. The calcareous fossils being finely ground, are speedily polished by this method. To polish softer substances, a piece of cloth may be spread over the wooden _lap_, and finely-levigated chalk used as a polishing medium. In order to study fossil plants well, there must be an acquaintance with systematic botany, a knowledge of the microscopical structure of all the organs of plants, such as their roots, stems, barks, leaves, fronds, and fruit; of the markings which they exhibit on their different surfaces, and of the scars which some of them leave when they decay. It is only thus we can expect to determine accurately the living affinities of the fossil. Brongniart says, that before comparing a fossil vegetable with living plants, it is necessary to reconstruct as completely as possible the portion of the plant under examination, to determine the relations of these portions to the other organs of the same plant, and to complete the plant if possible, by seeing whether, in the fossils of the same locality, there may not be some which belong to the same plant. The connection of the different parts of the same plant is one of the most important problems in Palæophytology, and the neglect of it has led to many mistakes. In some instances the data have been sufficient to enable botanists to refer a fossil plant to a genus of the present day, so that we have fossil species of the genera Ulmus, Alnus, Pinus, etc. Sometimes the plant is shown to be allied to a living genus, but differing in some essential point, or wanting something to complete the identity, and it is then marked by the addition of the term _ites_, as Pinites, Thuites, Zamites, etc.