Here is another argument, somewhat similar to the above, put forward by H. Spencer with a full consciousness of its logical character. States that make war their chief object, he says, assume a certain type of organisation, involving the growth of the warrior class and the treatment of labourers as existing solely to sustain the warriors; the complete subordination of individuals to the will of the despotic soldier-king, their property, liberty and life being at the service of the State; the regimentation of society not only for military but also for civil purposes; the suppression of all private associations, etc. This is the case in Dahomey and in Russia, and it was so at Sparta, in Egypt, and in the empire of the Yncas. But the similarity of organisation in these States cannot have been due to race, for they are all of different races; nor to size, for some are small, some large; nor to climate or other circumstances of habitat, for here again they differ widely: the one thing they have in common is the military purpose; and this, therefore, must be the cause of their similar organisation. (_Political Institutions._) By this method, then, to prove that one thing is causally connected with another, say A with _p_, we show, first, that in all instances of _p_, A is present; and, secondly, that any other supposable cause of _p_ may be absent without disturbing _p_. We next come to a method the use of which greatly strengthens the foregoing, by showing that where _p_ is absent A is also absent, and (if possible) that A is the only supposable cause that is always absent along with _p_. § 2. THE CANON OF THE JOINT METHOD OF AGREEMENT IN PRESENCE AND IN ABSENCE. _If_ (1) _two or more instances in which a phenomenon occurs have only one other circumstance (antecedent or consequent) in common, while_ (2) _two or more instances in which it does not occur (though in important points they resemble the former set of instances) have nothing else in common save the absence of that circumstance--the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ throughout (being present in the first set and absent in the second) is probably the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable condition of the phenomenon._ The first clause of this Canon is the same as that of the method of Agreement, and its significance depends upon the same propositions concerning causation. The second clause, relating to instances in which the phenomenon is absent, depends for its probative force upon Prop. II. (a), and I. (b): its function is to exclude certain circumstances (whose nature or manner of occurrence gives them some claim to consideration) from the list of possible causes (or effects) of the phenomenon investigated. It might have been better to state this second clause separately as the Canon of the Method of Exclusions. To prove that A is causally related to _p_, let the two sets of instances be represented as follows: