This concept was to undergird the whole communist “world outlook.” Human society, as well as the physical universe, Marx said, is affected by this outlook. The principles have universal application. Noncommunist thinkers, as well as human experience, have punctured many holes in the thesis; but to communists it applies with the same certainty as does the law of gravity. Constant and bitter struggle is not bad, Marx said, because it achieves progress. In fact, he viewed the whole recorded history of the world as a story of class struggle. Mankind, he said, has always been divided into _classes_: groups of people who have special interests, ideals, and ways of doing things. These classes, he added, have been struggling from the very beginning of time, and still are. Marx explained this struggle by means of a special formula, commonly called the _thesis-antithesis-synthesis_ dialectic, which he distorted from the philosophy of the famous German philosopher, G. W. F. Hegel. Here is how it works for communists: Start, for example, Marx said, with a certain economic class (a _thesis_). This class is the dominant power in society, controlling the means of production, the way houses are built, the kind of clothes worn, and so forth. Soon an opposing class arises (an _antithesis_) which seeks to overthrow the first class. It has different ideals, motives, and ambitions. What happens? A fight occurs and soon a new class (_synthesis_) emerges which, according to Marx, incorporates only the best of both old classes. (Why some of the bad does not seep in, too, Marx does not explain.) Then the process starts all over again. This is history, for as Marx held, historical materialism was nothing more than applying the concept of dialectical materialism to society. The new class (_synthesis_) is now dominant and thus becomes, in turn, a new _thesis_. It directs how to build houses, who gains wealth, etc., but, following Marx’s ideas, another opposition class arises (a new _antithesis_). They struggle, a new _synthesis_ is obtained, and again the world is off on a new cycle. These ideas obviously are distorted and theoretical. But to understand modern-day communism, it is essential to grasp the underlying theory. False as it is, this theory is the spark that kindles the communist flame This class struggle, in Marx’s reasoning, always produced a higher stage of civilization. First, years ago, came slavery. The slave-owning class, as expected, developed its own “antithesis” (meaning its rivals, who wanted to abolish slavery). A struggle ensued and feudalism developed, representing the best of both opponents. But feudal society, then the dominant class, was attacked by its own “antithesis,” forces within its body which opposed its ideas. For hundreds of years this struggle continued, issuing forth finally in a new “synthesis” (capitalism), again representing the best features of both rivals.