Now, a pretty species of oviparous, non-venomous serpent, still common in Italy, is believed to be the “Æsculapian snake” of Pliny, called _Paroas_ by Greek writers.[40] I have examined a number of specimens. Several are to be seen in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. It has been described by Shaw under the name of _Coluber Æsculapii_, but it is now often called _Elaphis Æsculapii_. A cut of it is given in Brehm’s great popular work,[41] which is very good, except that it gives one the impression that the animal is decidedly large. The Æsculapian serpent is comparatively small, being from three to four and one-half feet in length, and about as thick as a stout walking-cane. It is orange-brown above, or, as Shaw puts it, “rufous colour on the upper parts, more or less deep in different individuals.”[42] Beneath it is of a straw color. The scales of the back are oval and carinated, and those of the sides are smooth. The tapering tail measures about nine inches. Movement takes place through vertical waves or swellings. It is very active and can climb trees with facility. When attacked it will defend itself; but it is by nature gentle and is easily tamed. In his brief description of it, Cuvier follows Shaw. He adds: “It is that which the ancients have represented in their statues of Æsculapius; and it is probable that the serpent of Epidaurus was of this species. (The _Coluber Æsculapii_ of Linnæus[43] is of a totally different species, and belongs to America.)”[44] The Æsculapian serpent is closely related to the ringed snake (_Natrix torquata_), the only British member of the family; and the common black snake (_Coluber constrictor_) of America is of the same genus; but it should not be classed, as was done by Linnæus, with the decidedly venomous viperine serpent, the _Viper communis_, or _Pelias berus_, of which Figuier says: “It is not improbable that it is the _echis_ (εχις) of Aristotle and the _vipera_ of Virgil, as it is the _manasso_ of the Italians, the _adder_ of the country-people of England and Scotland, and the _vipère_ of France. It is found in all these countries and in Europe generally.”[45] In an article contributed to a medical journal[46] I have said, in reference to the Æsculapian serpent, that it is the one “which should always be shown in medical symbolism.” This would hardly be questioned by many; yet I am disposed to think that the restriction is too exclusive. Another species of coluber, the uræus, or asp, has played a significant rôle, as a symbol of life and healing, especially in Egypt, as will be seen later. Our medical traditions, however, being mainly derived from the Greeks, it would therefore seem but right that we should confine ourselves very exclusively to the symbolism in use by them. CHAPTER IV. THE EPIDAURIAN ORACLE.