countries where feudalism served to link the agricultural class with the central authority. Among men united for a common object, and thrown upon their own resources, the popular element early developed itself. Such communities finding themselves without a master, a position which, when real freedom was unknown, only exposed them to attacks from stronger neighbours, their instinct of self-preservation, ere long, induced attempts at self-government. Townships consequently multiplied, developed themselves into cities, and became republics. [Footnote *11: This may be, and indeed is so; but see LANZANI, _St. d. Comuni Italiani dal. Orig. al_ 1313 (Milano, 1882), lib. I., _passim_. Nevertheless, the relation of all the Dukes and Signori to the Empire or to the Church was absolutely feudal as I understand the term, as in essence was, in turn, the relation of a city to its contado. Cf. D. WINSPEARE, _St. d. Abusi Feudali_ (ed. 1883), to which is added as appendix an article by F. de Coulanges on the feudal régime. See also C. CANTÙ, _St. d. Italiani_ (Torino, 1854), tom. III., cap. LXXIV., pp. 224-39. C. CALISSE, _St. d. Diretto Italiano_ (Firenze, 1891), vol. II., parte II. e III.] [Footnote *12: For the malaria in Italy in the Middle Age, see AQUARONE, _Dante in Siena_ (Siena, 1889), p. 47-9.] Thus rose the Italian republics, not as is often superficially supposed, in the mercantile cities alone, but in almost every township of Upper Italy. Their constitutional forms not only varied from each other, but were constantly fluctuating, under a desire for novelty, the contests of rival factions, and the influence of external events. Republics they were, in so far as they owned no hereditary head. They believed themselves self-governed, because their ever-recurring revolutions were their own act, or at least were effected by their own instrumentality. But the democratic element seldom long existed in purity.[*13] After the _émeute_ was over, a self-constituted oligarchy, a rich and designing citizen, or an ambitious prelate, often stepped in, to enjoy that power for which the people had fought, until these, roused by some too undisguised tyranny, or by some new caprice, rushed to the piazza, and threw off their masters, leaving it to chance or intrigue to give them new ones. [Footnote *13: I doubt a true democratic element anywhere; perhaps for a few decades in Perugia.]