A somewhat similar type of vegetation occurs over vast areas in the more northern parts of Europe, forming the moors and heaths of much of Scotland, of parts of England and Ireland, of parts of Germany, and so on. Here the presence of peat produces conditions very unfavourable to plant life, except to certain shrubby plants such as heather and other plants of the heather family, juniper, bog myrtle, and so on, and some grasses and sedges, etc., all of which have special adaptations to life in a peaty soil. Over the large areas, therefore, covered by these heaths, trees are absent, or few, and this stunted shrubby vegetation takes their place. Large areas of natural grassland, except for the tracts of pasture land already described in the mountain regions, are infrequent in Europe. They occur in Southern Russia and in the Hungarian plain, and form part of that great series of steppes and plains which stretches into Asia, and passes into a region of deserts. The conditions favourable to the growth of grass here, instead of trees, seem to be purely climatic. Very important is the prevalence of strong cold winds during winter, which is a period of drought. The scanty rains come in early summer, which suits grasses admirably, while the total precipitation is too slight for trees. The summers are hot, and the rains cease early and give place to a period of drought, very injurious to trees, while it injures the grasses little, owing to the fact that they have had time to make their growth. The abundant natural growth of grass makes these steppe regions well suited to the pastoral industries, which tend, as civilisation progresses, to give place to agriculture. To sum up, we have seen that looking at Europe as a whole three great plant formations are represented. We have, first, the cool temperate forest, which once extended over the greater part of the continent, wherever the conditions were suitable. This has now largely given place to arable land. Next, we find round the Mediterranean sea, and in those great peninsulas and islands which are bathed by it, a zone of modified woodland passing into scrub, remarkable for the rapid growth of annuals in the early part of the year, and for the abundance of trees bearing useful fruits. Finally, linking Europe to temperate Asia, we have belts of steppe land, characterised by a luxuriant growth of grass in the early summer, and fitted by nature for pastoral industries, which do not thrive near the Mediterranean. Another way of putting the same facts would be to say that Europe proper is a region of temperate forest, linked to Africa by scrub land passing into desert, and to Asia by steppe land passing into desert. * * * * * The flora of North America, owing to the size of the continent, offers more resemblance to that of Asia than to Europe.