Religion superadds its own sanction to the moral duties, so far as adopted by it; laying especial stress upon select precepts. It likewise calls into being a distinct code of duties, the religious duties strictly so called; which have no force except with believers. The 'duties to God,' in the modern classification, are religious, as distinguished from moral duties. CHAPTER II. THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 1. ETHICS, or Morality, is a department of Practice; and, as with other practical departments, is defined by its End. Ethics is not mere knowledge or speculation, like the sciences of Astronomy, Physiology, or Psychology; it is knowledge applied to practice, or useful ends, like Navigation, Medicine, or Politics. Every practical subject has some end to be served, the statement of which is its definition in the first instance. Navigation is the applying of different kinds of knowledge, and of a variety of devices, to the end of sailing the seas. 2. The Ethical End is a certain portion of the welfare of human beings living together in society, realized through rules of conduct duly enforced. The obvious intention of morality is the good of mankind. The precepts--do not steal, do not kill, fulfil agreements, speak truth--whatever other reasons may be assigned for them, have a direct tendency to prevent great evils that might otherwise arise in the intercourse of human beings. Farther, the good aimed at by Ethics is attained by _rules of acting_, on the part of one human being to another; and, inasmuch as these rules often run counter to the tendencies of the individual mind, it is requisite to provide _adequate inducements_ to comply with them. The Ethical End is what is otherwise called the STANDARD, test, or criterion, of Right and Wrong. The leading controversy of Morals is centered in this point. 3. The Rules of Ethics, termed also Law, Laws, the Moral Law, are of two kinds:-- The first are rules imposed under a Penalty for neglect, or violation. The penalty is termed _Punishment_; the imposing party is named Government, or Authority; and the rules so imposed and enforced, are called Laws proper, Morality proper, Obligatory Morality, Duty. 4. The second are rules whose only external support is _Rewards_; constituting Optional Morality, Merit, Virtue, or Nobleness. Moral duties are a set of rules, precepts, or prescriptions, for the direction of human conduct in a certain sphere or province. These rules are enforced by two kinds of motives, requiring to be kept distinct. I.--One class of rules are made compulsory by the infliction of pain, in the case of violation or neglect. The pain so inflicted is termed a Penalty, or Punishment; it is one of the most familiar experiences of all human beings living in society.