Formerly the provincials were called to arms only in cases when a province was threatened; henceforth from the subjects of all the provinces of the emperor, many of whom had the lesser Roman franchise, cohorts were formed, which we hear of under the name of _auxilia_, and which may have made up about the half of the army. _Socii_ are no more spoken of at all. The legions, with regard to the organization of which in those days one is quite in the dark, had to serve a regular term of sixteen years; afterwards, they still remained for some time under the _vexilla_ as a reserve, and then they were to have land assigned them. This system of allotments was Augustus’ work, as was also the increase of pay. Hitherto the soldiers had got the old pay of a hundred and twenty _denarii_, or twelve hundred _asses_, yearly; Cæsar doubled, and Augustus trebled it. This was, after all, not much, about sixty dollars of our money; and as the price of everything at Rome had then immensely risen, it was not a large pay for fellows like these who had the throne in their gift. Still, owing to the number of soldiers, it was a burthen which the state could hardly bear, as even Tiberius, who was a very able ruler, already acknowledged. LITERATURE. Roman literature reached perfection through Cicero and with him, even as our own did through Lessing, and we may almost set down the year 680, when Cicero was in the prime of his life, as the epoch in which it made this step; the language shared likewise in this decisive advance. However much there may be of the beautiful in earlier times, yet there is always something wanting, even in Cicero’s first writings; but all that was coarse and clumsy is now thrown off, and nothing remains but the pure and polished language. With the greatest justice, the Latin of Cicero has been acknowledged as the very best: it is, after all, the language which was spoken by the well educated in his day, and had we more of Cornelius Nepos than the _Vita Attici_, there again we should also find Ciceronian latinity. As yet, Latin prose had been altogether weak and unequal, being sometimes spun out, and sometimes cramped: Cicero alone gave it its perfection. His influence also on his contemporaries is incalculable: there is no doubt but that the finish of Cæsar’s style is to be attributed to him and to his age.