The river Danube, flowing from the mountains of the Celts, who are now known as the Gauls, encloses a great tract of country, for the most part entirely desert, but in some places inhabited by barbarians, who dwell like savages, without any intercourse with the rest of mankind. On reaching Dacia, it first begins to divide the barbarians who dwell on its left bank from the Roman territory on the right bank. For this reason the Romans call this part of Dacia ‘Ripensis’; for in the Latin language a bank is called _ripa_. The first city which they built on this bank was named Singedon, which in process of time the barbarians captured, razed to the ground, and rendered entirely desolate. Most of the other fortresses were reduced to the same condition; but the Emperor Justinian rebuilt it entirely, surrounded it with a strong wall, and again made it a noble and admirable city. He built a new fort of great strength, distant eight miles from the city of Singedon,[75] which from that circumstance is called Octavum. Beyond it there was an ancient city named Viminacium, which the Emperor entirely rebuilt; for it had long before been razed to the ground. VI. Proceeding onward from the city of Viminacium, three fortresses stand on the bank of the Danube, named Picnus, Cupus, and Novæ, which formerly derived their name from a single tower built in each place; now, however, the Emperor Justinian added so many houses and fortifications to each of these, that they came to be regarded as considerable cities. On the further bank, opposite Novæ, stood in ancient times a ruinous tower named Litorata, which the ancients called Lederata. This place was made by our Emperor into a large and very strong fort. After Novæ are the forts of Cantabazates, Smornes, Campses, Tanatas, Vernes, and Ducepratum, and many more on the further bank, all of which he rebuilt from the foundations. After this comes Caput-bovis, the work of the Roman Emperor Trajan, and beyond it an ancient fort named Zanes, all of which he enclosed with strong fortifications, and rendered them impregnable bulwarks of the empire. Not far from Zanes is a fort named Pontes, where a stream leaves the river, encloses a small portion of the bank, and then rejoining its true channel, unites itself to the main river. It does this not by nature, but compelled by human art. I will now describe why it was that the place was named Pontes, and that the Danube was forced to flow round this place.