After the defeat and death of Gratian, the government of Lutetia passed into the hands of her bishops, who often defended the city against the incursions of the barbarians. In 476 Lutetia was besieged by the Franks, when Childeric gained possession of it, and destroyed for ever all traces of the Roman power. It now became a Frank or French town; and, "Lutetia Parisiorum" being too long a name for the unlettered Goths, was shortened by them first into "Parisius," and ultimately, by the suppression of the two last syllables, into "Paris." In the ninth century Paris underwent the usual Norman invasion, by which so many European countries, from Russia to England, and from England to Sicily--not to speak of the Norman or Varangian Guard of Constantinople--were sooner or later to be visited. The "hardy Norsemen"--or Norman pirates, as the unhappy Parisians doubtless called them--started from the island of Oissel, near Rouen, where they had established themselves in force; and, moving with a numerous fleet towards Paris, laid siege to it, and, on its surrender, first pillaged it and then burnt it to the ground. Three churches alone--those of Saint-Étienne, Saint-Germain-des-Prés, and Saint-Denis, near Paris--were saved, through the payment of a heavy ransom. Sixteen years later, after a sufficient interval to allow of a reconstruction, the Normans again returned, when once more the unhappy city was plundered and burnt. For twenty successive years Paris was the constant prey of the Norman pirates who held beneath their power the whole course of the Seine. At last, however, a powerful fleet, led by a chief whom the French call "Siegfroi," but whose real name was doubtless "Siegfried," sustained a crushing defeat; and, simultaneously with the Norman invaders, the Carlovingian Dynasty passed away. With the advent of the Capet Dynasty a continuous history began for Paris--in due time to become the capital of all France. Ancient Paris was three times burnt to the ground: the Paris which dates from the ninth century has often been conquered, but never burnt. Ancient Paris, the Lutetia of the Romans, was an island enclosed between two branches of the Seine. But the river overflowed north and south, and it became necessary to construct large ditches or moats, which at once widened the boundaries of the "city." Gradually the population spread out in every direction; and when, under Louis XIV., the line of boulevards was traced, the extreme limits of the capital were marked by this new enclosure. Then under Louis XVI., the Farmers-General, levying dues (the so-called _octroi_) on imports into the town, established for their own convenience certain "barriers," at which persons bringing in food or drink were stopped until they had acquitted themselves of the appointed tax; and, connecting these "barriers," they thus formed the line of outer boulevards.