=14.= The ‘naturalistic fallacy’ illustrated by Bentham; and the importance of avoiding it pointed out. 17 C. =15.= The relations which ethical judgments assert to hold universally between ‘goodness’ and other things are of two kinds: a thing may be asserted either to _be_ good itself or to be causally related to something else which is itself good--to be ‘good as a means.’ 21 =16.= Our investigations of the latter kind of relation cannot hope to establish more than that a certain kind of action will _generally_ be followed by the best possible results; 22 =17.= but a relation of the former kind, if true at all, will be true of all cases. All ordinary ethical judgments assert _causal_ relations, but they are commonly treated as if they did not, because the two kinds of relation are not distinguished. 23 D. =18.= The investigation of intrinsic values is complicated by the fact that the value of a whole may be different from the sum of the values of its parts, 27 =19.= in which case the part has to the whole a relation, which exhibits an equally important difference from and resemblance to that of means to end. 29 =20.= The term ‘organic whole’ might well be used to denote that a whole has this property, since, of the two other properties which it is commonly used to imply, 30 =21.= one that of reciprocal causal dependence between parts, has no necessary relation to this one, 31 =22.= and the other, upon which most stress has been laid, can be true of no whole whatsoever, being a self-contradictory conception due to confusion. 33 =23.= Summary of chapter. 36 CHAPTER II. NATURALISTIC ETHICS. =24.= This and the two following chapters will consider certain proposed answers to the second of ethical questions: What is _good in itself_? These proposed answers are characterised by the facts (1) that they declare some _one_ kind of thing to be alone good in itself; and (2) that they do so, because they suppose this _one_ thing to define the meaning of ‘good.’ 37 =25.= Such theories may be divided into two groups (1) Metaphysical, (2) Naturalistic: and the second group may be subdivided into two others, (_a_) theories which declare some natural object, other than pleasure, to be sole good, (_b_) Hedonism. The present chapter will deal with (_a_). 38 =26.= Definition of what is meant by ‘Naturalism.’ 39