An account of the historical development of the killing process brings out many interesting and enlightening facts, so it will be given here briefly. One of the first substances used for killing, or degreasing the hair of furs, was decomposing urine. Urine contains about 2% of urea which gradually changes to salts of ammonia, and in the presence of the air, largely to ammonium carbonate. This substance has a weak alkaline action, but sufficiently effective to be used for killing the hair of certain types of furs. Woolly furs, such as those derived from the various kinds of sheep and goats, were degreased with stale urine, the skins being washed in this, and then rinsed in water. The fat was emulsified by the ammonium carbonate present, and could thus be easily removed. For other furs, a stronger mixture was necessary. An example of a killing formula used on wolf, skunk and raccoon, which were to be dyed black, is the following: 350 grams beechwood ashes 200 grams unslaked lime 150 grams copper vitriol 100 grams litharge 60 grams salammoniac 40 grams crystallized verdigris 3.5 liters rain water Beechwood ashes were a very important constituent of the old killing formulas. The reason for that lies in the fact that beechwood contains a comparatively high percentage of potassium, which occurs in the ashes of the burned wood as potassium carbonate, or potash. The ashes alone were frequently used, being applied in the form of a paste, which in some instances had an advantage over a solution, in that the killing could be limited to certain parts of the skin where it was more desired than in other parts. By extracting the wood ashes with hot water, and evaporating the clear solution to dryness, potash could be obtained, which was considerably stronger than the original ashes. Next in importance for the killing was unslaked lime. This substance was also often used by itself, being first slaked with water, and using the milk of lime thus formed, after cooling. Salammoniac, although a salt, and consequently without any killing action, in contact with the beechwood ashes or the lime in solution or paste, liberated ammonia slowly, and so also acted as a degreasing agent. The other chemicals in the formula took no part in the actual killing of the hair, but acted either as mordant materials or as mineral dyes. The copper salts, in this mixture present in two forms, as sulphate in copper vitriol, and as acetate in the verdigris, were important constituents of the dye formula, being essential to the production of the proper shade. These substances properly had no place in the killing formula. The litharge, also was not a killing agent, but in the presence of the alkaline materials of the killing mixture, it gradually combined with the sulphur contained in the hair, forming lead sulphide, and thereby darkening the color of the hair. In this case, the metallic compound acted, not as a mordant, but as a mineral dye. The