[Footnote 191-10: The first scientific defense of interest is generally considered to be that of _Salmasius_, loc. cit. Yet _Bacon_, Sermones fideles, C. 39 (after 1539), and at bottom also _H. Grotius_, De Jure Belli et Pacis, 1626, taught that it was lawful to take interest in so far as it was not against the love due to one's neighbor (_Endemann_, loc. cit., I, 62 ff.), and _Besold_, Quaestiones aliquot de Usuris, 1598, was as near the truth as _Salmasius_. Compare _supra_, note 4. How earnestly _North_ and _Locke_ labored against the lowering of interest by governmental interference, see _Roscher_, Z. Gesch. der engl. Volkswirths., 90, 102 ff. The best writers, in strictly Catholic countries, did violence to themselves in this matter for a long time after. Thus _Galiani_, Della Moneta, II, I seq.; and one cannot help being greatly surprised at witnessing the subtleties which _Turgot_, Mémoire sur le Prêt d'Argent, 1769, had to have recourse to, to prove the clearest matters. Thus: at the moment of the loan, a sum of money is exchanged against the mere promise of the other party, which is certainly less valuable. [If it were not, why should he borrow?] This difference must, therefore, be made up in interest, etc. _Mirabeau_ even was a decided opponent of interest. (Philos. rurale, ch. 6.) Compare, however, the theological defense by _Viaixnes_, 1728, in the Traité des Prêts de Commerce, Amsterdam, 1759, IV, 19 ff.] [Footnote 191-11: Of course, evaded in a thousand ways in practical life. Thus, for instance, people gave wheat, other commodities, and even uncoined gold and silver as loans, and had what interest they pleased promised them. In alienating the capital, they might stipulate _à fonds perdu_, as they thought best. (Turgot, I, c. § 29.) When debtors had promised under oath to make no complaint, the church ordered that they should be helped officially. When the temporal power showed itself lax, Alexander III. decreed that such questions should be brought before the spiritual courts. (Decret. Greg. V., tit. 19; 13 _Innocent_, Epist., VIII, 16; X, 61.) In England, _Richard of Cornwall_ obtained a monopoly of the whole loaning business. (_Matth. Paris_, ed. 1694, 639: compare, also, 20 Henry III., 5.), from which fact the existence of the custom of taking interest about 1235, is apparent. Cases in which English kings borrowed and promised payment back _cum damnis, expensis et interesse:_ Anderson, Origin of Commerce, a. 1274, 1339.]