The chief difference in the theories of rent consists in this: whether rent is considered a result of production or only of distribution, and an equalization of gain. Compare _Behrens_, Krit. Dogmengeschichte der Grundrente, 1868, 48.] SECTION CLV. HISTORY OF RENT. In poor nations, and in those in a low stage of civilization, especially where the population is sparse, rent is wont to be low. In Turkistan, land is valued according to the capital invested in its irrigation.[155-1] In the interior of Buenos Ayres, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, landed estates were paid for in proportion to the magnitude of the live stock on them, so that it seemed, at least, as if the land was given for nothing, or simply thrown in with the purchase. And only a short time since, an English acre in the same country, fifteen _leguas_ from the capital, was worth from three to four pence, and at a distance of fifty _leguas_, only two pence.[155-2] In Russia, also, not long since, the valuation of landed estates was made, not in proportion to the superficies, but according to the number of souls, that is, of male serfs, a _remnant_ suggestive of the previous situation when no rent was paid.[155-3] Where, in relatively uncivilized medieval times, instances of the farming out or leasing of land occur, farm-rents are so small that their payment can only be considered as a mere recognition of the owner's continuing right of property. Under these circumstances, it is natural that great landowners, especially in the lower stages of civilization, should exert an especially great influence; and that their low tenants (_Hintersassen_) are more dependent in proportion to the want of capital and the absence of trade. Hence, these are wont to make up for the smallness of their rent by great honors paid to their landlords, and great services, especially military service.[155-4] Besides, the lords of the manor, in almost every medieval period, have used their influence with the government to cut down the wages of labor by serfdom and other similar institutions, and the rate of interest on capital by prohibiting interest, by usury laws, etc.; and thus, in both ways, to artificially increase their own share of the national income. [Footnote 155-1: _A. Burnes_, Reise nach Bukhara, II, 238.] [Footnote 155-2: _W. Maccann_, Two Thousand Miles Ride through the Argentine Provinces, London, 1853, I, 20; II, 143. Ausland, 1843, No. 140. Frisian ancient documents in which parcels of land are described as _terræ 20 animalium, 48 animalium_, etc. _Lacomblet_, Urkundenbuch, I, 27. _Kindlinger_, Münster Beitr., I, Urkundenbuch, 24.]