=Measurement of Low Temperatures.=—Junctions of iron and constantan, Hoskin’s alloys, copper and German silver, or copper and constantan, are suited to these measurements. In a laboratory the cold junction may be kept in ice in a Dewar vessel, the mechanically protected form known as the “Thermos” flask being very useful for this purpose. With a good mirror galvanometer precise readings may be secured, 1/10 of a degree C. being easily detected. Calibration between -40° and +40°C. may be effected by comparison with a standard mercury thermometer, a water-bath being used above 0°, and alcohol surrounded by a freezing mixture of ice and calcium chloride crystals below zero. For very low temperatures (-200°C. or less) the junction maybe calibrated in solid carbon dioxide (-78°C.) and liquid air (-184°C.). Dewar has found that copper and German silver form a reliable junction for very low temperatures, and the author has successfully used a couple of Hoskin’s alloys for special work down to -200°C., a pivoted indicator being employed. No couples tested show a linear relation between E.M.F. and temperature at these low ranges. Owing to the magnitude of the error caused by changes in the cold junction, the thermo-electric method is not suited to the measurement of atmospheric temperatures, or for explosive magazines or cold stores. In such cases instruments of the resistance type, to be described later, are used. =Temperature of Steam, Exhaust Gases, etc.=—For measuring the temperature of ordinary or superheated steam, the exhaust gases from internal combustion engines, etc., iron-constantan junctions, with suitable indicators, are satisfactory. When placed in a pipe the junction should be as nearly as possible in the centre, so as to avoid the cooling effect of the walls. Several junctions, situated in different parts of the pipe, may be used with a single indicator and suitable switchboard. The above remarks also apply to the hot-blast for blast furnaces, and similar instances where the temperature does not exceed 900° C. =Measurement of Differences of Temperature.=—Cases frequently arise in practice in which the difference in temperature between two points is required, and if this difference be subject to rapid changes, a mercury thermometer, from its large mass, would not respond with sufficient rapidity to indicate these changes. In such cases a circuit is made after the manner of fig. 2, one junction being located at each point; thin wires of iron and constantan being used. For small differences—1° C. or less—a mirror galvanometer should be used. Calibration may be performed by placing one junction in hot water and the other in cold, the water temperatures being read with an accurate thermometer.