The books of which the most frequent use has been made in this first portion of the work are Sismondi's 'Republiques Italiennes'; Muratori's 'Rerum Italicarum Scriptores'; the 'Archivio Storico Italiano'; the seventh volume of Michelet's 'Histoire de France'; the seventh and eighth volumes of Gregorovius' 'Geschichte der Stadt Rom'; Ferrari's 'Rivoluzioni d' Italia'; Alberi's series of Despatches; Gino Capponi's 'Storia della Repubblica di Firenze'; and Burckhardt's 'Cultur der Renaissance in Italien.' To the last-named essay I must acknowledge especial obligations. It fell under my notice when I had planned, and in a great measure finished, my own work. But it would be difficult for me to exaggerate the profit I have derived from the comparison of my opinions with those of a writer so thorough in his learning and so delicate in his perceptions as Jacob Burckhardt, or the amount I owe to his acute and philosophical handling of the whole subject. I must also express a special debt to Ferrari, many of whose views I have adopted in the Chapter on 'Italian History.' With regard to the alterations introduced into the substance of the book in this edition, it will be enough to say that I have endeavored to bring each chapter up to the level of present knowledge. In conclusion, I once more ask indulgence for a volume which, though it aims at a completeness of its own, is professedly but one part of a long inquiry. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE SPIRIT OF THE RENAISSANCE. Difficulty of fixing Date--Meaning of Word Renaissance--The Emancipation of the Reason--Relation of Feudalism to the Renaissance--Mediaeval Warnings of the Renaissance--Abelard, Bacon, Joachim of Flora, the Provencals, the Heretics, Frederick II.--Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio--Physical Energy of the Italians--The Revival of Learning--The Double Discovery of the World and of Man--Exploration of the Universe and of the Globe--Science--The Fine Arts and Scholarship--Art Humanizes the Conceptions of the Church--Three Stages in the History of Scholarship--The Age of Desire--The Age of Acquisition--The Legend of Julia's Corpse--The Age of the Printers and Critics--The Emancipation of the Conscience--The Reformation and the Modern Critical Spirit--Mechanical Inventions--The Place of Italy in the Renaissance P. 1. CHAPTER II. ITALIAN HISTORY. The special Difficulties of this Subject--Apparent Confusion--Want of leading Motive--The Papacy--The Empire--The Republics--The Despots--The People--The Dismemberment of Italy--Two main Topics--The Rise of the Communes--Gothic Kingdom--Lombards--Franks--Germans--The Bishops--The Consuls--The Podestas--Civil Wars--Despots--The Balance of Power--The Five Italian States--The Italians fail to achieve National Unity--The Causes of this Failure--Conditions under which it might have been achieved--A Republic--A Kingdom--A Confederation--A Tyranny--The Part played by the Papacy P. 32. CHAPTER III. THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS.