There was no regular marriage among slaves, but their connexion was called contubernium. The children of any female slave became the property of her master. Such as had a genius for it were sometimes instructed in literature and liberal arts. Some of these were sold at a great price. Hence arose a principal part of the wealth of Crassus. The power of the master over his slave was absolute. He might scourge or put him to death at pleasure. This right was often exercised with great cruelty. The lash was the common punishment; but for certain crimes they were to be branded in the forehead, and sometimes were forced to carry a piece of wood round their necks, wherever they went, which was called _furca_; and whoever had been subjected to the punishment was ever afterwards called _furcifer_. Slaves also, by way of punishment, were often confined in a work-house, or bridewell, where they were obliged to turn a mill for grinding corn. When slaves were beaten, they were suspended with a weight tied to their feet, that they might not move them. When punished for any capital offence, they were commonly crucified; but this was afterwards prohibited under Constantine. If the master of a family was slain at his own house, and the murderer not discovered, all his domestic slaves were liable to be put to death. Hence we find no less than four hundred in one family punished on this account. Slaves were not esteemed as persons, but as things, and might be transferred from one owner to another, like any other effects. They could not appear in a court of justice as witnesses, nor make a will, or inherit anything, or serve as soldiers, unless first made free. At certain times they were allowed the greatest freedom, as at the feast of Saturn, in the month of December, when they were served at table by their masters, and on the Ides of August. The number of slaves in Rome and through Italy, was immense. Some rich individuals are said to have had several thousands. Anciently, they were freed in three different ways:--1st, _Per censum_, when a slave with his master's knowledge inserted his name in the censor's roll. 2d, _Per vindictam_, when a master, taking his slave to the prætor, or consul, and in the provinces to the pro-consul or pro-prætor, said, "I desire that this man be free, according to the custom of the Romans"--and the prætor, if he approved, putting a rod on the head of the slave, pronounced,--"I say that this man is free, after the manner of the Romans." Wherefore, the lictor or master turning him round in a circle, and giving him a blow on the cheek, let him go; signifying that leave was granted him to go, wherever he pleased. 3d, _Per testamentum_, when a master gave his slaves their liberty by his will. CHAPTER II. _The Senate._